PUBLIC  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 
IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 


BY 


EDGAR  W.  KNIGHT,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Education  in  Trinity  College  (North  Carolina) 

Author  of 

41  The  Influence  of  Reconstruction  on  Education  in  the  South," 

"  Some  Principles  of  Teaching,"  etc. 


B08TON    NEW  YORK    CHICAGO 
HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

:Cbe  ttifccrsibc  pre**  Cambnboc 


COPYRIGHT,    I916,   BY   KDOAR  W.    KNIGHT 
ALL  RIGHTS    RESERVED 


Cfjr  »ibf raibt  $rr«* 

CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U   .    S   .   A 


TO 
MY  MOTHER  AND  MY  FATHER 


357326 


PREFACE 

That  the  history  of  education,  as  a  subject  which  con- 
tributes to  the  professional  training  and  equipment  of 
teachers,  has  been  on  trial  for  its  life,  no  serious  student 
of  the  subject  will  undertake  to  deny.  Some  of  the 
charges  made  against  it  have  been  grave  enough  to  cause 
the  real  services  of  the  subject  to  be  honestly  questioned 
by  many  of  its  ardent  students  and  supporters.  In  fact, 
the  conviction  has  grown  in  recent  years,  even  among 
those  engaged  in  the  professional  preparation  of  teach- 
ers, that  the  history  of  educational  theory  and  practice 
needed  to  justify  itself.  As  a  result,  its  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  institutions  devoted  to  the  training  of  teach- 
ers has  been  challenged  by  subjects  of  a  character  more 
popularly  accepted  as  utilitarian  and  immediately  use- 
ful as  pedagogical  tools. 

But  the  critics  have  served  a  useful  purpose,  and  their 
charges  against  the  history  of  education  have  tended  to 
strengthen  its  cause  and  to  increase  its  champions.  In 
this  respect  its  career  bears  a  striking  likeness  to  that  of 
general  history,  which  likewise  tardily  found  a  place  in 
the  curriculum.  The  more  remote  its  interests  and  the 
more  encyclopaedic  its  completeness,  the  more  worthy 
history  was  once  esteemed,  not  so  much  for  its  practical 
value  in  interpreting  present-day  conditions  and  tenden- 
cies as  for  its  alluring  and  fascinating  character.  For 
generations  the  results  were  far  from  wholesome  and 
safe.   To-day,  however,  the  historical  point  of  view  is 


vi  PREFACE 

becoming  more  and  more  rationalized,  narrowness  and 
provincialism  are  decreasing,  and  a  keener  and  more 
lively  interest  in  human  affairs  is  steadily  developing. 

A  similar  reform  has  been  demanded  of  the  history 
of  education.  In  this  subject  a  student  might  become 
an  able  expositor  of  the  educational  theories  of  Plato, 
Aristotle,  Rabelais,  Herbart,  and  Spencer,  and  discuss 
creditably  the  principal  features  of  ancient  school 
systems,  without  being  able  to  recognize  tendencies  in 
modern  education,  detect  an  educational  fad,  or  ex- 
plain the  manner  of  raising  school  finances  or  of  electing 
local  school  officers.  Gradually,  therefore,  it  has  become 
necessary  to  present  the  subject  so  as  to  impel  a  more 
complete  analysis  of  modern  educational  problems  and  a 
clearer  and  more  rational  understanding  of  those  prac- 
tices with  which  the  teachers  themselves  are  constantly 
concerned. 

In  this  conception  of  the  value  of  the  subject  may  be 
found  the  chief  purpose  of  this  book.  The  author  be- 
lieves that  a  study  of  the  educational  conditions  of  the 
past,  which  are  often  in  striking  contrast  to  present 
conditions,  will  help  teachers  and  educational  adminis- 
trators to  a  more  satisfactory  understanding  of  the  pres- 
ent situation,  and  assist  in  breaking  up  a  complacent 
acceptance  of  those  practices  which  are  more  traditional 
than  rational.  This  report  of  public  educational  prog- 
ress in  North  Carolina  has  been  prepared  in  the  hope 
that  it  may  be  of  real  service  to  teachers,  on  whom  the 
burden  of  educational  advancement  so  largely  rests,  and 
to  whom  every  possible  encouragement,  inspiration,  and 
support  should  be  given  in  their  work  of  disseminating 
intelligence. 

The  author  has  undertaken  to  include  in  the  book 


PREFACE  vii 

historical  material  sufficient  to  aid  the  reader  and  stu- 
dent to  draw  correct  conclusions  concerning  the  subject. 
An  effort  has  also  been  made  to  make  clear  the  relation 
between  social  and  economic  forces  and  educational  de- 
velopment; to  show  how  the  ideals  of  a  people  are  re- 
flected in  their  school  system;  and  to  suggest  relations 
between  present  educational  problems  and  current  ed- 
ucational practices  so  many  of  which  have  been  tradi- 
tionally received.  There  would  be  less  excuse  for  such  a 
book  if  there  were  already  accessible  to  teachers  and  the 
general  reader  any  complete  story  of  public  education  in 
the  State.  Parts  of  two  chapters  were  first  published  in 
the  South  Atlantic  Quarterly  and  in  the  North  Carolina 
Booklet  and  are  here  included  through  the  courtesy  of 
the  editors  of  those  publications.  In  order  that  the  en- 
tire work  may  later  be  relieved  of  its  inaccuracies  the 
author  will  welcome  any  criticisms  concerning  it. 

To  my  colleagues  and  former  teachers,  Professor 
Eugene  C.  Brooks,  of  the  Department  of  Education,  and 
Professor  William  K.  Boyd,  of  the  Department  of  His- 
tory, in  Trinity  College,  I  am  especially  indebted;  to  the 
former  for  first  stimulating  my  interest  in  educational 
history,  and  to  the  latter  for  arousing  my  interest  in 
North  Carolina  and  Southern  history,  and  to  both  for 
constant  encouragement  and  advice  and  for  sympathetic 
interest  and  assistance  in  the  present  work.  I  also  ac- 
knowledge my  indebtedness  to  my  former  teacher, 
Professor  Paul  Monroe,  of  Columbia  University,  whose 
scholarly  advice  has  all  along  encouraged  my  historical 
and  educational  studies.  To  Dr.  James  Y.  Joyner,  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  I  am  indebted  for 
the  concluding  chapter  and  for  his  kindly  interest  in  the 
entire  book.    I  am  also  indebted  to  Professor  N.  W. 


vm  PREFACE 

Walker,  state  inspector  of  high  schools  and  Professor  of 
Secondary  Education  in  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina, for  suggestions  concerning,  and  assistance  in  the 
treatment  of,  secondary  education,  in  Chapter  XVI, 
and  for  reading  apart  of  the  proof;  to  Mr.  E.  E.  Sams, 
state  supervisor  of  teacher-training,  Professor  L.  A. 
Williams,  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  Pro- 
fessor C.  W.  Wilson,  of  the  East  Carolina  Teachers' 
Training  School,  and  Superintendent  Samuel  B.  Under- 
wood, of  the  Pitt  County  Schools,  I  am  indebted  for 
examining  the  manuscript  and  for  making  helpful  sug- 
gestions. To  my  wife,  Annie  Turner  Knight,  I  am  in- 
debted for  assistance  in  reading  the  proof  and  in  the 
preparation  of  the  index. 

Edgar  W.  Knight. 

Trinity  College 

Durham,  North  Carolina 

August,  1916 


CONTENTS 

I.  Under  the  Lords  Proprietors     ....      1 

II.  The  Apprenticeship  System 14 

HE  Under  Royal  Rule 32 

IV.  The  Academy  Movement 44 

V.  The  Early  Agitation  (1776-1825)       ...    63 

VI.  The  Literary  Fund 84 

VH.  Growth   of  Educational  Sentiment   (1825- 

1837) 113 

VIIL  The  Beginnings  of  Public  Education  (1838- 

1852) 138 

IX.  The  Educational  Revival  under  Wiley  (1853- 

1865) 158 

X.  Ante-Bellum  Educational  Practice        .      .  192 
XI.  The  Beginnings  of  Reconstruction        .      .  212 
XII.  Education  during  Reconstruction     .      .      .  238 
XHI.  The  Work  and  Influence  of  the  Peabody 

Fund 271 

XIV.  Attempts  at  Readjustment  (1877-1900)    .      .  294 
XV.  Aycock  and  the  Revival  (1900-1910)       .      .  329 
XVI.  The  Present  System:  Its  Tasks  and  Tenden- 
cies   345 

XVII.  What  of  the  Future? 368 

Index 375 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN 
NORTH  CAROLINA 

CHAPTER  I 

UNDER  THE  LORDS  PROPRIETORS 

Although  North  Carolina  developed  before  1860  the 
most  creditable  system  of  public  education  to  be  found 
in  any  of  the  States  which  seceded  from  the  Union,  her 
intellectual  and  educational  growth  was  very  slow  dur- 
ing the  colonial  period.  This  slowness  was  due  to  the 
conditions  under  which  the  colony  was  settled  —  condi- 
tions which  naturally  lent  themselves  very  sparingly  to 
educational  enterprises.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the 
period  from  1663,  when  settlements  first  began  to  be 
made  in  the  region  around  Albemarle  Sound,  to  1728, 
when  the  transfer  from  proprietary  to  royal  ownership 
of  the  colony  was  made. 

The  earliest  settlers  in  North  Carolina  migrated  from 
the  northern  colony  of  Virginia  from  1650  to  1675,  not 
as  religious  refugees,  but  principally  for  economic  ad- 
vantage. After  1663,  however,  when  the  intolerant  and 
illegal  government  of  Berkeley  in  Virginia  was  resisted 
by  Bacon's  rebellion,  some  came  for  political  reasons, 
and  North  Carolina  soon  found  herself  accommodating 
"rogues,  runaways,  and  rebels "  who  refused  to  tolerate 
Berkeley  and  his  tyranny.  But  the  colony  grew  exceed- 
ingly slowly,  although  in  1670  immigrants  were  encour- 


fc         THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

aged  by  the  promise  of  the  Assembly  of  exemption  from 
taxation  for  one  year  and  protection  for  five  years  from 
suits  for  debts  made  before  coming  into  the  colony. 
Even  these  attractions,  however,  induced  but  few. 
When  William  Drummond  was  appointed  the  first 
"governor  of  Albemarle,"  in  1663,  his  commission  ex- 
tended over  sixteen  hundred  square  miles  of  territory 
which  was  so  sparsely  settled  that  there  were  perhaps 
not  more  than  fifteen  hundred  people  in  the  entire  settle- 
ment. In  1675  there  were  probably  four  thousand  peo- 
ple in  the  colony,  less  than  three  to  a  square  mile.  In 
1728  the  entire  population  was  not  more  than  ten  thou- 
sand. Immigration  before  1728,  therefore,  must  have 
been  very  slight.1 

This  slow  growth  of  population  is  but  one  explanation 
of  the  colony's  slow  educational  development.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  colony  the  tendency  was  necessarily 
toward  rural  rather  than  urban  communities,  the  mild 
climate  and  the  fertile  soil  both  contributing  to  a  stimu- 
lation of  rural  life.  The  earliest  settlers  took  up  large 
tracts  of  land  on  the  water-courses,  which  furnished 
practically  the  only  means  of  communication,  and  agri- 
culture soon  became  the  most  promising  pursuit  of  the 
colonists.  The  dangerous  coasts  and  poor  harbors  made 
the  colony  difficult  of  access  and  retarded  the  commer- 
cial interests  of  the  people.  Moreover,  there  were  fre- 
quent complaints  against  the  unsatisfactory  govern- 
ment, and  conflicts  between  the  inhabitants  and  the 
proprietors,  or  their  representatives,  "  who  reckoned  the 
lives  of  the  colonists  only  in  quitrents  and  taxes."  Occa- 
sional religious  dissensions  and  a  scarcity  of  teachers 

1  Weeks,  Libraries  and  Literature  in  North  Carolina  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  in  House  Documents,  vol.  62. 


UNDER  THE  LORDS  PROPRIETORS  3 

may  also  be  noted  as  other  conditions  unfavorable  to 
educational  and  intellectual  activity. 

Likewise,  the  need  for  schools  and  education  was  not 
keenly  felt  by  those  in  authority.  The  educational  phil- 
osophy of  seventeenth-century  England,  "that  the  great 
body  of  the  people  were  to  obey  and  not  to  govern,  and 
that  the  social  status  of  unborn  generations  was  already 
fixed,"  was  now,  as  at  a  later  time,  widespread  and  per- 
sistent. This  was  the  philosophy,  not  only  for  the  colo- 
nies, but  for  the  mother  country  as  well.  As  late  as  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  held  by  many 
that  the  surest  way  to  serve  the  public  welfare  was  by 
keeping  great  numbers  of  the  people  "ignorant  as  well 
as  poor.  Knowledge  both  enlarges  and  multiplies  our 
desires,  and  the  few  things  man  wishes  for,  the  more 
easily  his  necessity  may  be  supplied."  l  This  is  an  argu- 
ment which  has  been  frequently  used  to  defeat  universal 
public  education.2 

A  few  teachers  gradually  found  their  way  into  the 
colony,  however.  The  first  of  these  were  the  lay  readers 
appointed  in  the  churches  built  by  the  early  settlers.  In 
the  charter  which  granted  Carolina  to  Robert  Heath  in 
1629,  provisions  were  made  for  the  establishment  of  a 
State  Church,  and  these  provisions  were  continued  in 
the  charters  to  the  lords  proprietors  in  1663  and  1665. 
The  first  practical  effort  to  build  up  a  State  Church  in 
the  colony  came  with  the  Vestry  Act  of  1701.  The  first 
preacher  of  the  English  Church  arrived  about  1703  and 
the  first  churches  were  built  a  few  years  later.  By  the 
Vestry  Act  of  1715  the  colony  was  divided  into  nine 
parishes  and  vestrymen  were  appointed  in  each.  Provi- 

1  See  p.  68,  note. 

1  Adams,  History  of  the  Elementary  School  Contest  in  England,  p.  46. 


4        THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

sion  was  made  for  the  purchase  of  glebe  lands,  for  the 
employment  and  support  of  ministers,  and  for  general 
church  organization. 

Brickell,  writing  of  North  Carolina  in  the  early  eight- 
eenth century,  said:  — 

The  religion  by  law  established  is  the  Protestant,  as  it  is 
professed  in  England,  and  though  they  seldom  have  orthodox 
clergymen  among  them,  yet  there  are  not  only  glebe  lands  laid 
out  for  that  use  commodious  to  each  town,  but  likewise  for 
building  churches.  The  want  of  these  Protestant  clergy  is 
generally  supplied  by  some  schoolmasters  who  read  the  Lit- 
urgy, and  then  a  sermon  out  of  Dr.  Tillotson  or  some  good 
practical  divine  every  Sunday.  These  are  the  most  numerous 
and  are  dispersed  through  the  whole  province.1 

But  this  establishment  of  the  English  Church  was  not 
altogether  an  advantage  to  education,  even  though  per- 
haps many  if  not  all  of  the  schoolmasters  in  the  colony 
were  its  missionaries,  ministers,  or  lay  readers.  Dissen- 
ters, especially  Baptists  and  Quakers,  were  numerous  in 
the  colony  and  sternly  opposed  the  regulations  of  the 
establishment.  The  troubles  which  naturally  arose  re- 
sulted in  a  lack  of  union  in  educational  ideals  and  prac- 
tices. After  the  transfer  to  royal  control  in  1729,  the 
instructions  to  the  governors,  beginning  with  George 
Burrington  in  1730  and  continuing  for  many  years, 
proved  retarding  to  educational  development.  By  these 
instructions  North  Carolina,  already  under  the  ecclesias- 
tical control  of  the  English  Church,  was  seriously  ham- 
pered in  the  case  of  school-teachers:  — 

And  we  do  further  direct  that  no  Schoolmaster  be  hence- 
forth permitted  to  come  from  the  Kingdom  and  to  keep  school 
in  that  our  said  Province  without  the  license  of  the  Lord 

1  Natural  History  of  North  Carolina,  p.  S5. 


"UNDER  THE  LORDS  PROPRIETORS  5 

Bishop  of  London,  and  that  no  other  person  now  there  or  that 
shall  come  from  other  parts  shall  be  admitted  to  keep  school 
in  North  Carolina  without  your  license  first  obtained.1 

These  instructions  to  Burrington  practically  repro- 
duced that  tyrannical  measure  known  as  the  English 
Schism  Act  of  1714,  which  deprived  dissenters  of  the 
means  of  providing  educational  facilities  for  their  own 
children.  By  it  no  one  was  allowed  to  teach  in  a  public 
or  private  school  or  to  give  instruction  in  any  form  with- 
out first  securing  the  privilege  from  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don. This  reproduced  Schism  Act  seems  to  have  been 
enforced  in  the  colony  at  least  three  times  after  it  was 
repealed  in  England,  in  a  school  at  Newbern  in  1766,  at 
Edenton  in  1768,  and  in  the  case  of  Queen's  Museum,  at 
Charlotte,  in  1773.  The  repeal  of  the  act  in  England 

only  makes  its  reenactment  for  the  colony  the  more  exasper- 
ating. School-teachers  were  few  enough  in  North  Carolina 
during  the  whole  period  of  its  colonial  existence.  Of  those  who 
did  ajjpear,  some,  no  doubt,  were  dissenters;  but  with  fiendish 
atrocity  the  English  Government  closes  to  them  the  avenue  to 
greater  usefulness.  This  is  the  greeting  which  the  royal  gov- 
ernment sends  out  to  the  daughter  rejoicing  in  her  recent 
escape  from  the  rule  of  the  proprietors.  This  was  the  precious 
heritage  with  which  the  first  royal  governor  comes  out  to  meet 
the  subjects  who  had  thrown  off  the  rule  of  the  proprietors  and 
claimed  the  king's  protection.  It  seemed  that  the  new  govern- 
ment was  to  be  worse  than  the  old,  for  the  royaXgQVjexament 
now  took  the  lead  in  ecclesiastical  legislation  and  had,  unfortu- 
nately, a  large  following  in  the  colony.2 

In  spite  of  the  ecclesiastical  evils  which  followed  the 
establishment  of  the  English  Church  in  North  Carolina, 
however,  the  intellectual  and  educational  life  of  the  col- 

1  Col.  Rec.,  vol.  in,  pp.  no,  111. 

•  Weeks,  Church  and  State  in  North  Carolina,  pp.  24,  25. 


0    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

ony  was  somewhat  encouraged  and  assisted  by  it.  Al- 
most simultaneously  with  its  establishment,  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  began 
its  educational  labors  in  the  colony.  This  organization 
was  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  charitable  and 
religious  agencies  which  assisted  education  in  most  of  the 
English  colonies.  It  was  formed  in  London  by  royal 
charter  in  1701  to  aid  the  Established  Church  in  its 
colonial  possessions,  in  supplying  better-trained  minis- 
ters, in  establishing  and  reviving  churches,  and  in  train- 
ing children  in  church  doctrine  as  well  as  in  other  sub- 
jects. The  membership  of  the  organization  was  made 
up  largely  of  prelates,  the  clergy,  and  the  more  influen- 
tial laity.  Funds  for  its  maintenance  and  work  were 
secured  by  subscriptions,  bequests,  donations,  royal 
benefactions,  and  frequent  church  contributions.  From 
1701  to  1780  the  Society  spent  more  than  £230,000  in 
its  work  in  the  colonies  of  America.  Of  the  Southern 
colonies,  South  Carolina  received  the  greatest  attention. 
The  missionaries  of  the  Society  "brought  with  them 
the  first  parish  or  public  libraries  and  its  lay  readers  were 
the  first  teachers."  Charles  Griffin,  who  in  1705  came 
from  the  West  Indies  and  settled  in  Pasquotank,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  professional  teacher  in  the  colony. 
Here  he  taught  school  three  years  and  with  such  success 
that  even  the  Quakers  patronized  him.  In  1708  his 
school  was  transferred  to  a  missionary  of  the  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  the 
Reverend  James  Adams,  who  had  settled  in  that  com- 
munity. Griffin  later  went  to  Chowan,  where  he  became 
reader  of  the  vestry,  and  conducted  a  school  for  one 
year.  In  1709  he  became  a  Quaker.  Ten  years  later  he 
probably  taught  a  school  for  Indians  in  Christina,  Vir- 


UNDER  THE  LORDS  PROPRIETORS  7 

ginia,  and  later  still  he  probably  became  a  professor  in 
William  and  Mary  College.1 

A  few  others  were  also  engaged  in  teaching  in  the 
colony  during  the  proprietary  period.  One  of  these, 
Mashburn  by  name,  had  a  school  at  Sarum  near  the 
Virginia  border  in  1712,  and  his  work  was  so  well 
thought  of  that  he  deserved  compensation  by  the  So- 
ciety. "What  children  he  has  under  his  care  can  both 
write  and  read  very  distinctly,"  wrote  the  Reverend 
Giles  Rainsford,  "and  gave  before  me  such  an  account 
of  the  grounds  and  principles  of  the  Christian  religion 
that  it  strangely  surprised  me  to  hear  it."  Rainsford 
believed  that  Mashburn's  work  should  be  encouraged. 

Not  only  did  the  Society  furnish  teachers,  but  its 
missionaries  gave  books  for  the  use  of  the  pupils  and  also 
established  parish  or  public  libraries.  The  first  of  these 
public  libraries  was  made  possible  by  the  Reverend 
Thomas  Bray,  founder  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Society,  and  later  the  Bishop  of  London's  commissary 
in  Maryland.  He  came  to  America  in  March,  1700.  The 
establishment  of  libraries  soon  became  a  part  of  his 
larger  scheme  of  educational  and  religious  activity  in  the 
colonies,  and  during  his  work  here  he  helped  to  establish 
thirty-nine  or  more,  many  of  them  with  more  than  one 
thousand  volumes. 

The  only  library  which  Dr.  Bray  gave  to  North  Caro- 
lina was  established  in  Bath,  which  was  made  a  town- 
ship about  1705.  Here  it  seems  not  to  have  been  prop- 
erly cared  for  and  used,  and  in  1712  the  Reverend  Giles 
Rainsford  said  that  the  books  were  lost  "by  those 
wretches  that  do  not  consider  the  benefit  of  so  valuable 

1  Weeks,  Libraries  and  Literature  in  North  Carolina,  in  House  Doc- 
uments, vol.  62,  p.  175,  note. 


8    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

a  gift";  and  two  years  later  John  Urmstone,  that  quar- 
relsome, haughty,  and  notoriously  wicked  clergyman  of 
the  English  Church  whose  career  in  the  colony  was  a 
constant  reproach,  stated  that  the  "famous  library  sent 
in  by  Dr.  Bray's  directions  is,  in  a  great  measure,  de- 
stroyed. I  am  told  the  books  are  all  unbound  and  have 
served  for  some  time  as  waste  paper." 

Urmstone's  statements  are  probably  incorrect,  how- 
ever, because  in  1715  there  was  passed  the  only  act  dur- 
ing the  proprietary  period  which  looked  to  an  encourage- 
ment of  literature,  and  this  looked  to  the  preservation  of 
the  library.  This  law  is  very  similar  to  one  passed  on  the 
same  subject  in  South  Carolina  in  1700,  concerning 
which  Dr.  Weeks  says:  "Is  it  not  possible  that  a  draft  of 
the  act  was  sent  over  with  the  books,  filled  out  in  the 
province,  and  passed  in  each  near  the  same  time?  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that  the  North  Carolina  act  was  several 
years  old  in  1715."  1 

Fear  that  the  books  of  the  library  "will  quickly  be 
embezzled,  damaged,  or  lost"  led  to  the  passage  of  the 
law  "for  the  more  effectual  preservation  of  the  same." 
By  this  act  provision  was  made  for  the  appointment  of  a 
librarian  who  was  to  become  responsible  for  the  books, 
and  be  "bound  and  obliged  to  keep  and  preserve  the 
several  and  respective  books  therein,  from  waste,  dam- 
age, embezzlement,  and  all  other  destruction,"  and  to 
give  for  them  two  receipts,  one  to  the  library  commis- 
sioners and  one  to  the  church  wardens.  The  library  was 
not  to  be  moved  from  Bath.  Books  could  be  borrowed 
by  giving  a  receipt  for  them,  "with  a  promise  to  return 
the  said  book  or  books,  if  a  folio,  in  four  months'  time; 

1  Libraries  and  Literature  in  North  Carolina,  in  House  Documents, 
vol.  62,  pp.  179,  180,  and  note. 


UNDER  THE  LORDS  PROPRIETORS  9 

if  a  quarto,  in  two  months'  time;  if  an  octavo,  or  under, 
in  one  month's  time;  upon  penalty  of  paying  three  times 
the  value  of  the  said  book  or  books  so  borrowed,  in  case 
of  failure  in  returning  the  same."  Catalogues  of  all  the 
books  were  to  be  made,  and  the  commissioners  every 
Easter  Monday  were  to  examine  the  catalogues  to  see 
that  no  books  were  lost. 

What  the  library  contained,  who  the  librarians  were, 
how  extensively  the  books  were  used,  and  what  disposi- 
tion was  finally  made  of  them  are  questions  about  which 
little  or  nothing  is  known.  With  the  exception  of  the  law 
of  1715  there  is  no  further  record  of  the  library.  One 
view  held  is  that  the  books  finally  came  into  the  hands 
of  Edward  Moseley  and  were  the  same  as  those  he  gave 
to  Edenton  eight  years  later.1 

There  were  a  few  other  parish  libraries  in  the  colony 
before  1729,  the  end  of  proprietary  control.  All  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel had  books  which  were  not  only  of  service  to  them, 
but  were  perhaps  intended  for  a  limited  use  among  the 
people  in  educating  them  in  the  orthodox  faith.  Most 
of  these  books  were  religious  and  doctrinal.  Among 
these  missionaries  whose  supply  of  books  was  more  or 
less  adequate  were  the  Reverends  James  Adams,  Giles 
Rainsford,  John  Urmstone,  Ebenezer  Taylor,  and  Wil- 
liam Gordon.  Through  some  of  these  men  tracts  were 
distributed  and  frequently  "some  books  for  the  use  of 
scholars."  The  missionaries  occasionally  received  new 
supplies  of  books  from  the  Society.  Only  a  few  books 
were  sent  over,  however,  during  the  closing  years  of 
proprietary  control  and  but  few  during  the  early  years  of 
royal  rule.  During  the  middle  and  latter  part  of  royal 
1  See  p.  10. 


10      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

rule,  however,  new  interest  was  taken  in  this  phase  of 
the  work  of  the  Society  and  many  books  were  received 
in  the  colony.  This  part  of  the  Society's  activity  must 
be  highly  praised,  for  through  it  opportunity  was  given 
to  cultivate  a  taste  for  books  and  to  foster  an  educa- 
tional sentiment  which  was  beginning  to  show  slight 
growth. 

The  establishment  of  a  library  in  Edenton  by  Edward 
Moseley,  for  nearly  half  a  century  the  leading  figure  in 
the  life  of  the  colony,  is  one  of  the  few  notable  efforts  of 
the  period  to  encourage  education.  In  1720  he  sent  some 
money  to  the  secretary  of  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  with  the  instruction  that  it  be  spent 
for  some  useful  books  for  use  in  Chowan,  but  the  Society 
seems  to  have  taken  no  notice  of  his  request  and  the 
books  were  never  received.  Three  years  later  he  sent  to 
the  secretary  a  list  of  books  which  he  had  collected  in 
America  with  the  request  that  the  Society  accept  them 
as  the  nucleus  of  a  provincial  library  to  be  established 
in  Edenton.  The  books,  which  were  worth  several  hun- 
dred dollars,  were  mostly  religious  and  scholastic  and 
largely  in  Latin,  Greek,  or  Hebrew.  There  were  listed 
twenty-six  folio  volumes,  twelve  quarto  volumes,  and 
thirty-eight  octavo  volumes.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
the  Society  ever  accepted  Moseley's  gift,  and  the  books 
probably  remained  in  his  private  collection,  which  at  his 
death  in  1749  numbered  four  hundred  volumes.  Many 
of  these  were  folios  and  bound  in  sheep. 

Perhaps  the  most  complete  and  representative  colo- 
nial library  of  North  Carolina  was  the  collection  of 
Samuel  Johnston  (1733-1816),  the  beginning  of  which 
was  made  by  Governor  Eden  (1673-1722),  whose 
daughter,  Penelope,  married  Governor  Gabriel  John- 


UNDER  THE  LORDS  PROPRIETORS  11 

ston.  At  the  death  of  Governor  Johnston  in  1752  the 
library  passed  to  his  nephew,  Samuel.  The  collection,  as 
made  by  Eden,  Gabriel  Johnston,  and  Samuel  Johnston, 
consisted  of  history  and  politics,  biography,  travels, 
philosophy,  the  classics,  science  and  medicine,  law,  do- 
mestic affairs  and  agriculture,  theology  and  sermons, 
essays  and  miscellaneous  literature,  encyclopaedias, 
grammars,  poetry  and  the  drama  —  in  all  perhaps  more 
than  five  hundred  volumes. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  colony  there  were  many 
other  less  important  private  libraries  which  are  evidence 
of  a  degree  of  culture  not  often  believed  to  have  existed 
in  North  Carolina  in  the  eighteenth  century.  This  sec- 
tion of  the  colony  was  the  first  part  to  be  settled  and 
was  more  or  less  representative  of  English  culture.  The 
libraries  of  James  Innes,  of  John  Hodgson,  James  Ire- 
dell, William  Hooper,  Archibald  Maclaine,  Joseph  Gan- 
tier,  Willie  Jones,  of  Halifax  County,  John  Burgwin, 
William  Cathcart,  and  others  were  more  or  less  impor- 
tant, however,  as  reflecting  educational  conditions  in  the 
eastern  and  older  section  of  the  colony  which  was  set- 
tled largely  by  the  English.  In  the  western  section, 
where  many  Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  emigrated  after 
1746,  there  was  evidence  also  of  intellectual  activity. 
Libraries  existed  here  as  in  the  eastern  section,  and 
many  of  the  settlers  were  educated  and  cultured.  The 
influence  of  Princeton  College,  to  be  noted  later,  from 
which  many  preachers  and  teachers  came,  soon  came  to 
be  extensive  and  powerful.  Among  those  of  this  region 
who  had  valuable  collections  of  books  may  be  mentioned, 
Waightstill  Avery,  the  Reverend  David  Caldwell,  the 
Reverend  James  Hall,  the  Reverend  John  Barr,  the 
founder  of  the  Thyatira  Circulating  Library,  Joseph 


12   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Graham,  the  Reverend  Henry  Patillo,  and  others. 
Circulating  libraries  were  founded  in  some  of  the 
counties  and  seem  to  have  been  extensively  used.1 

In  the  eastern  section  especially,  the  Established 
Church  doubtless  assisted  somewhat  in  furnishing  the 
few  teachers  who  were  at  work  before  1729.  Through  it 
and  its  adjunct  organization,  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  books  and  tracts 
were  distributed  among  the  parishioners  and  furnished 
to  the  children.  But  the  work  of  the  Society  was  slight 
in  North  Carolina  as  compared  with  its  achievements  in 
the  colony  of  South  Carolina.  More  could  perhaps  have 
been  accomplished  in  North  Carolina  if  the  reproduced 
Schism  Act  had  not  been  applied  and  if  the  dissenters 
had  not  been  unfortunately  alienated.  Little  common 
religion  resulted  in  lack  of  union  in  educational  matters. 
Moreover,  the  people  were  not  homogeneous  and  a  long 
time  was  required  to  fuse  the  many  diverse  elements  of 
the  population.  The  well-to-do  were  provided  for  by  a 
form  of  tutorial  instruction,  but  schools  and  the  means 
of  education  for  the  less  fortunate  classes  were  few. 
However,  in  spite  of  the  conditions  which  retarded  pub- 
lic schools  for  the  masses,  local  efforts  were  occasionally 
made  for  a  form  of  education  which  was  more  or  less 
popular  for  many  years.  The  chief  of  these  efforts  was 
that  of  the  poor  law  and  apprenticeship  system,  the 
operation  of  which  will  be  considered  in  the  following 
chapter. 

1  Weeks,  Libraries  and  Literature  in  North  Carolina. 


UNDER  THE  LORDS  PROPRIETORS  13 


REFERENCES 

The  Colonial  Records  of  North  Carolina;  Brickell,  A  Natural 
History  of  North  Carolina;  Weeks,  Church  and  State  in  North 
Carolina,  Libraries  and  Literature  in  North  Carolina  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  The  Religious  Development  in  the  Province 
of  North  Carolina,  and  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organi- 
zation of  the  Common  Schools  of  North  Carolina;  Smith,  History 
of  Education  in  North  Carolina;  Kemp,  The  Support  of  Schools 
in  Colonial  New  York  by  the  S.  P.  G.;  Lecky,  History  of  England 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  vol.  i;  Hawks,  History  of  North  Caro- 
lina; Foote,  Sketches  of  North  Carolina;  Cyclopedia  of  Educa- 
tion, edited  by  Paul  Monroe,  vol.  n,  article,  "Colonial  Period 
in  American  Education." 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  were  some  of  the  natural  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
educational  development  in  North  Carolina  during  the 
early  history  of  the  colony? 

2.  Compare  the  economic  and  social  conditions  of  North 
Carolina  with  those  of  the  New  England  colonies. 

3.  Compare  the  early  settlers  of  North  Carolina  with  those 
of  the  other  American  colonies  with  respect  to  origin, 
religious  and  economic  conditions. 

4.  What  was  the  condition  of  education  in  England  when 
settlements  began  to  be  made  in  America? 

5.  How  did  this  condition  affect  the  educational  ideals  and 
practices  of  the  colonists? 

6.  In  what  way  did  the  Established  Church  aid  education 
in  North  Carolina?  In  what  way  did  it  retard  educational 
progress? 

7.  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts? 

8.  Illustrate  by  the  early  history  of  North  Carolina  how 
educational  conditions  are  the  result  of  social  and  eco- 
nomic forces. 

9.  How  are  the  ideals  of  a  people  reflected  in  their  educa- 
tional practices? 


CHAPTER  n 

THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM 

Just  as  our  modern  public-school  system  cannot  be 
adequately  understood  except  in  the  light  of  colonial 
conditions,  so  also  must  colonial  custom  and  practice  be 
explained  in  view  of  European  antecedents.  This  ap- 
plies to  education  in  all  the  English  colonies,  and  es- 
pecially in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  where  the  general 
mental  attitude  toward  education  in  colonial  days  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  mother  country.  Here  the  English 
spirit  was  everywhere  in  evidence.  The  dominating  in- 
fluences were  here,  as  in  England,  more  or  less  aristo- 
cratic; and  these  produced  a  tardiness  and  indifference 
to  so-called  popular  education.  In  actual  practice  the 
tutor  or  the  small  school,  or,  as  in  not  a  few  cases,  edu- 
cation in  England,  was  the  rule  of  the  well-to-do.  The 
less  prosperous  classes  were  cared  for  educationally 
through  poor-relief  and  apprenticeship  laws  after  the 
manner  of  the  mother  country.  A  brief  consideration 
of  this  practice  is  now  in  order. 

The  poor-law  and  the  apprenticeship  system  not  only 
had  their  foundations  in  similar  laws  and  practices  in 
England,  but  in  many  cases  the  legislation  was  directly 
taken  over,  certainly  adapted,  from  the  principles  found 
in  the  famous  series  of  poor-relief  and  apprenticeship 
statutes  which  developed  in  England  during  the  second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century.1  Legislation  of  this  kind 

1  "  Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  authoritie  of  this  Grand  Assembly, 
according  to  the  aforcsayd  laudable  custom  in  the  Kingdom  of  Eng- 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  15 

seemed  necessary  in  order  to  take  care  of  the  gradually 
increasing  dependent  class,  a  group  made  up  of  journey- 
men, apprentices,  vagrants,  "thieves  and  sturdy  beg- 
gars," whose  wages,  employment,  or  migration  was  in 
almost  every  case  determined  by  some  one  of  the  upper 
classes  of  English  population.  Caring  for  this  dependent 
element  was  an  immense  task.  The  suppression  of  Eng- 
lish monasteries  by  Henry  VIII  and  Edward  VI,  on  the 
alleged  ground  of  negligence  and  certain  forms  of  irre- 
ligion  and  immorality,  destroyed  many  facilities  and 
important  agencies  for  poor  relief  and  elementary  edu- 
cation.1 Elizabeth  undertook  to  make  amends  for  these 
acts  of  destruction  to  monasteries  and  guilds,  by  a  series 
of  poor-relief  and  apprenticeship  enactments  which  cul- 
minated in  the  oft-cited  law  of  1601,  which  remained  in 
force  in  England  until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.2  The  execution  and  enforcement  of  these  acts, 
however,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  local  justices  of  the 
peace,  who  were  country  gentlemen.  It  should  be  noted 
at  this  point  that  many  of  the  early  colonists  were  of 
this  class  and  were  trained  in  the  interpretation  and 

land  ..."  is  now  and  then  a  part  of  the  preamble  of  some  of  the  early 
Virginia  acts  on  which  similar  acts  in  the  colony  of  North  Carolina 
were  based.  The  influence  of  the  legislation  in  Virginia,  based  on  the 
laws  in  England,  is  seen  in  North  Carolina  throughout  the  colonial 
period. 

1  Leach,  English  Schools  at  the  Reformation.  It  is  said  that  as  many 
as  one  thousand  foundations  were  destroyed  —  about  ten  million  dol- 
lars in  the  present  valuation.  By  the  law  of,  1536  (27  Henry  VIII, 
c.  28)  all  monasteries  were  to  be  "given  to  the  King,  which  have  not 
lands  above  200/.  by  the  year."  By  the  law  of  1546  (37  Henry  VIII, 
c.  4)  "all  colleges,  chantries,  free  chapels,  etc.,  shall  be  in  the  King's 
Majesty's  disposition."  By  the  law  of  1547  (1  Edward  VI,  c.  14)  the 
statute  of  37  Henry  VTII  was  somewhat  revised  and  re^nacted.  See 
English  Statutes  at  Large,  vols.  4  and  5. 

•  43  Elizabeth,  c.  2.  English  Statutes  at  Large,  vol.  7,  pp.  30-37. 
This  is  the  real  statutory  foundation  of  the  poor  law  system. 


16   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

administration  of  these  laws.  This  was  especially  true 
of  Virginia,  and  the  influence  of  that  colony  on  North 
Carolina  was  far-reaching  in  the  matter  of  the  poor  and 
apprenticeship  system.1 

By  the  law  of  1601  the  church  wardens  of  every  par- 
ish, and  two,  three,  or  four  "substantial  householders 
there,"  depending  on  the  size  of  the  parish,  were  to  be 
nominated  annually,  at  Easter  or  one  month  thereafter, 
by  the  justices  of  the  peace,  to  be  called  "overseers  of 
the  poor."  These  officers  were  to  give  attention  to 

setting  to  work  the  children  of  all  such  whose  parents  shall  not 
...  be  thought  able  to  maintain  their  children,  .  .  .  and  also 
to  raise  weekly  or  otherwise  (by  taxation  of  every  inhabitant, 
parson,  vicar,  and  other,  and  of  every  occupier  of  lands,  houses, 
tithes  impropriate,  propriations  of  tithes,  coal  mines,  or  sale- 
able underwoods  in  the  said  parish,  in  such  competent  sum  or 
sums  of  money  as  they  shall  see  fit)  a  convenient  stock  of  flax, 
hemp,  wool,  thread,  iron,  and  necessary  ware  and  stuff,  to  set 
the  poor  to  work:  and  also  competent  sums  of  money  for  .  .  . 
putting  out  of  such  children  as  apprentices,  to  be  gathered  out 
of  the  same  parish,  according  to  the  ability  of  the  same 
parish.  .  .  . 

These  overseers  were  to  meet  monthly  on  Sunday 
afternoon,  after  divine  service,  "to  consider  some  good 
course  to  be  taken."  They  were  to  give  a  true  and  per- 
fect account  of  all  moneys  received  by  them,  or  of  all 
stock,  and  of  "  all  the  things  concerning  their  said  office." 
A  penalty  of  twenty  shillings  was  prescribed  for  every 
case  of  negligence  or  default  on  the  part  of  the  overseers, 
and  imprisonment  was  prescribed  for  the  overseers  who 
refused  "to  account."  Whenever  the  justices  of  the 
peace  found  that  the  inhabitants  of  any  parish  were 

1  An  illuminating  discussion  of  the  English  system  of  poor  and  ap- 
prenticeship laws  may  be  had  in  Sir  George  Nicholls's  A  History  of  the 
English  Poor-Law. 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  17 

unable  to  relieve  their  poor,  the  justices  were  to  "tax, 
rate,  and  assess  as  aforesaid,"  any  other  parishes  in  "the 
hundred  where  the  said  parish  is."  In  case  the  hundred 
was  not  regarded  as  able  to  bear  the  tax,  the  justices,  at 
their  quarter  sessions,  were  to  rate  and  assess  other  par- 
ishes "within  the  said  county"  for  the  purpose  of  the 
law.  Those  people  who  refused  to  pay  their  assessment 
saw  their  property  sold  for  the  rate. 

Other  duties  of  the  church  wardens  and  overseers  of 
the  poor  were  to  bind  as  apprentices  the  children  af- 
fected by  this  act,  the  males  until  they  were  twenty-four 
years  of  age,  and  the  females  until  they  were  twenty -one, 
or  until  the  time  of  their  marriage;  and  to  have  houses 
built  on  "any  waste  or  common"  in  the  parish  at  the 
"general  charges  of  the  parish"  as  habitations  for 
the  poor.  Powers  similar  to  those  given  to  justices  of  the 
peace  were  given  to  officers  of  towns  and  corporations. 
Justices  in  the  county  and  officers  in  the  towns  who 
failed  regularly  to  nominate  the  overseers  of  the  poor 
were  to  "lose  and  forfeit  for  every  such  default  five 
pounds." 

The  system  of  poor-relief  and  apprenticeship  thus 
built  up  in  England  was  inherited  in  Virginia  where  it 
became  very  popular.  One  of  the  first  pieces  of  similar 
legislation  in  Virginia  which  had  a  public  educational 
aspect  was  passed  in  March,  1643 :  — 

And  all  overseers  and  guardians  of  such  orphans  are  en- 
joyned  by  the  authoritie  aforesayd  [the  county  courts]  to  edu- 
cate and  instruct  them  according  to  their  best  endeavors  in 
Christian  religion  and  in  rudiments  of  learning  and  to  provide 
for  them  necessaries  according  to  the  competence  of  their 
estates.  .  .  .* 

1  18  Charles  I.  Hening,  Statutes,  vol.  I,  p.  261. 


18       THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  custom  soon  became  more  or  less  popular  in  North 
Carolina  also,  though  in  that  colony  the  system  seems  not 
to  have  been  so  extensive  as  in  Virginia,  which  was  more 
nearly  like  the  mother  country.  In  Virginia  the  practice 
was  so  widely  extended  that  the  ante-bellum  educational 
system  of  that  State  seems  a  gradual  evolution  from  it.1 

As  an  attempt  to  foster  a  form  of  education  with  em- 
phasis on  a  minimum  of  formal  intellectual  training,  this 
poor-law  and  apprenticeship  system  forms  a  unique  edu- 
cational scheme.  But  in  order  to  understand  the  popu- 
lar mental  attitude  to  the  class  of  dependents  entrusted 
to  its  care  —  an  attitude  which  the  system  itself  reflects 
—  it  is  necessary  to  consider  that  "education"  is  a  term 
of  varying  meaning.  The  term  now  generally  means  an 
expansion  of  the  mental  faculties  through  a  specific 
organized  course  of  a  more  or  less  literary  nature.  For 
the  more  prosperous  part  of  society  a  "certain  tincture 
of  letters*'  has,  in  the  popular  mind,  always  been  re- 
garded as  essential,  but  this  particular  form  of  a  literary 
training  has  not  been  held  in  high  esteem  for  the  poorer 
classes.  The  popular  view  has  been  that  formal  intel- 
lectual and  literary  training  was  not  necessary  for  the 
poor  youth  of  the  community.  And  parents  or  guardians 
often  appeared  more  concerned  about  the  practical 
training  of  their  children  or  wards  in  the  occupations 
and  crafts  through  which  they  were  later  to  maintain 
themselves  than  they  were  interested  in  "  book  learning." 

It  is  through  the  apprenticeship  system  that  one  form 
of  local  educational  effort  may  be  seen  in  North  Carolina 
during  the  colonial  period,  and  evidence  that  the  legis- 
lation in  Virginia  influenced  the  practice  in  North  Caro- 

1  See  Knight,  "The  Evolution  of  Public  Education  in  Virginia,"  in 
the  Sewanee  Review,  January,  1916. 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  19 

lina  is  not  wanting.  We  have  seen  that  the  first  law  in 
Virginia  which  had  an  educational  aspect  in  the  formal 
sense  was  passed  in  1643.  It  was  some  years  before  leg- 
islation on  the  subject  was  enacted  in  North  Carolina, 
but  that  the  system  was  in  operation  here  at  an  early 
date  may  be  seen  from  the  following  records  of  Febru- 
ary, 1695,  and  of  April,  1698:  — 

Upon  ye  Peticon  of  Hone11  Thomas  Harvey  esqr  Ordered  y* 
Wm  ye  son  of  Timothy  Pead  late  of  the  County  of  Albemarle 
Decd  being  left  destitute  be  bound  unto  ye  sd  Thomas  Harvey 
esq1"  and  Sarah  his  wife  untill  he  be  at  ye  age  of  twenty  one 
years  and  the  said  Thomas  Harvey  to  teach  him  to  read.1 

Three  years  later,  in  April,  1698,  the  records  of  Per- 
quimans Precinct  Court  show  that  Elizabeth  Gardner, 

y*  Rellock  William  Gardner  desesed  p'sented  his  selfe  before 
ye  Court  to  bind  hir  Son  William  Gardner  to  ye  Honbl  Govener 
Thomas  Harvi  or  his  Heires  Thay  Ingagen  to  Learn  him  to 
Reed  Which  In  or  to  Was  doon  till  he  comes  to  ye  Age  of 
Twenty  on  yeares  he  being  five  years  ould  now  a  fortnite 
before  Crismas.* 

Four  years  later,  at  the  January,  1699,  term  of  the 
same  court,  the  following  orders  appeared :  — 

Jonathan  Taylor  And  William  Taylor  Orfens  Being  Left 
destressed  ordered  that  they  be  Bound  to  William  Long  and 
Sarah  His  Wife  Till  they  Come  of  Age. 

Thomas  Tailer  Orfen  Being  Left  destressed  ordered  that  He 
be  bound  to  John  Lawrence  And  Hannah  his  Wife  till  he 
Comes  of  age. 

Mare  Tayler  Orfen  being  Left  destressed  ordered  that  Shee 
be  bound  to  Mr  Caleb  Galleway  And  Elisabeth  his  Wife  till 
Shee  Comes  of  Age. 

Thomas  Hallom  Orfen  being  Left  destressed  ordered  that  he 
be  bound  to  ffrancis  ffoster  And  Hannah  his  Wife  till  he  Comes 
of  Age.a 

■  Col.  Rec.,  vol.  i,  p.  448.  »  Ibid.,  p.  495.  •  Ibid.,  p.  522. 


20      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

These  examples  are  the  bare  court  records  and  nothing 
is  said  about  the  maintenance  and  education  of  the  chil- 
dren who  were  bound.  Indentures  covering  each  case 
were  likely  signed  later  by  the  guardian  and  the  court 
which  appointed  him.  Ordinarily  these  indentures 
called  for  the  education  and  maintenance,  according  to 
his  "rank  and  degree,"  of  the  orphan  bound  or  appren- 
ticed. This  meant  to  feed,  clothe,  lodge,  and  to  provide 
"accommodations  fit  and  necessary"  for  the  child,  and 
to  teach  or  cause  him  to  be  taught  to  read  and  write,  as 
well  as  a  suitable  trade.  This  was  the  customary  agree- 
ment made  with  the  courts.  The  absence  of  these  fea- 
tures in  the  cases  above  is  hardly  proof  that  they  were 
here  neglected.  The  indentures  were  likely  formally 
signed  later,  as  appears  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  fol- 
lowing agreement  made  in  March,  1703,  in  the  same 
court :  — 

Upon  a  petition  of  Gabriell  Newby  for  two  orphants  left  him 
by  Mary  Hancock  the  late  wife  of  Thorn8  Hancocke  and  prove- 
ing  the  same  by  the  oathes  of  Eliz.  Steward  and  her  daughter 
the  Court  doe  agree  to  bind  them  unto  him  he  Ingagen  & 
promising  before  the  Court  to  doe  his  endeavours  to  learne  the 
boy  the  trade  of  a  wheelwright  and  likewise  give  him  at  the 
expiration  of  his  time  one  year  old  heifer  and  to  ye  girle  at  her 
freedome  one  Cow  and  Calfe  besides  the  Custome  of  the 
Country  and  has  promised  to  ye  next  orphans  Court  to  Sign 
Indentures  for  that  effect.1 

At  the  October,  1704,  term  of  the  same  court,  Nathan 
Sutton  petitioned  to  be  appointed  guardian  for  Richard 
Sutton,  the  orphan  son  of  George  Sutton,  who  was  prob- 
ably Nathan's  relative,  but  the  petition  was  rejected. 
A  year  later,  however,  he  was  appointed  guardian  for 
the  boy.  The  same  court  which  appointed  him  guardian 
1  Col.  Rec,  vol.  i,  p.  577. 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  21 

heard  complaints  made  by  the  "orphans  of  George  Sut- 
ton deced  That  Abraham  Warren  their  guardian  hath 
given  Imoderate  Correccon  &  deprived  them  of  Com- 
petent Sustenance."  The  result  was  that  the  court  ap- 
pointed Dennis  Macclendon  the  guardian  of  Elizabeth 
and  Deborah  Sutton  and  Nathan  Sutton  guardian  for 
Richard.1 

Other  examples  will  throw  further  light  on  the  opera- 
tion of  the  system  in  North  Carolina:  — 

Upon  petition  of  George  Bell  setting  forth  that  he  had  two 
serv*8  bound  to  him  by  the  precinct  Court  of  Craven  in  ye 
month  of  July  17  12/13  namely  Charles  Coggdaile  and  George 
Coggdaile  as  by  Indenture  may  appeare.  And  further  that  ye 
Court  af*1  have  pretended  to  sett  ye  said  Serv1  at  Liberty  as 
he  is  informed  by  reason  that  they  could  not  perfectly  read  and 
write  when  as  the  time  of  their  servitude  is  not  half  expired 
And  he  further  claimes  that  during  the  time  they  were  with 
him  they  were  well  used  and  much  time  allowed  them  to  per- 
fect them  in  their  reading  and  writeing  and  that  he  intended  to 
instruct  them  in  ye  building  of  Vessells  Therefore  prays  that  in 
regard  there  is  no  other  allegation  made  appeare  agl  him  they 
may  remain  with  him  till  ye  time  of  the  Indenture  Specifyed 
be  expired  &c.  .  .  . 

It  was  ordered  that  the  servants  remain  with  their 
master  in  accordance  with  their  former  indentures.2 

The  records  of  Chowan  Precinct  Court  for  August, 
1716,  show  another  feature  of  the  general  practice  of 
apprenticing  in  North  Carolina  which  is  of  interest 
here:  — 

Upon  Petition  of  John  Avery  Shewing  that  sometime  in 
August  1713  ye  said  Avery  being  in  Prince  George's  County  in 
Virginia  met  with  one  John  Fox  aged  abl  fifteen  years  who 
being  Desireous  to  live  in  North  Carolina  to  learn  to  be  a  Ship 
Carpenter  bound  himselfe  an  apprentice  to  ye  said  John  Avery 

»  Col.  JUe.,  vol.  i,  pp.  613.  626.  «  lbid.t  vol.  n,  p.  172. 


22      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

for  Six  years  before  one  Stith  Boiling  Gent  one  of  her  Ma^** 
Justices  of  ye  said  County  as  is  practiable  in  ye  Governm1  of 
Virginia  whereupon  ye  said  Avery  brought  ye  said  Fox  into 
North  Carolina  with  him  and  Caused  the  sd  John  his  said 
Apprentice  to  be  Taught  and  Instructed  to  read  and  write  and 
was  at  other  Charges  and  Expenses  concerning  him  and  have- 
ing  now  made  him  serviceable  and  usefull  to  him  in  ye  Occu- 
pation of  a  Shipp  Carpenter  to  ye  Great  Content  and  Seeming 
Satisfaction  of  the  said  Foxes  Mother  and  Father  in  Law  one 
Cary  Godby  of  Chowan  Precinct  But  ye  Said  Cary  intending 
to  proffitt  and  advantage  himselfe  by  the  Labour  and  useful- 
ness of  ye  said  John  Fox  hath  advised  the  said  Fox  to  withdraw 
himselfe  from  yor  petition™  service  and  to  bring  along  his  In- 
dentures of  apprenticeship  &  is  now  Entertained  and  har- 
boured by  the  said  Cary  Godby  and  therefore  prayes  that  the 
sd  Fox  may  be  apprehended  and  brought  before  this  Board 
their  to  be  dealt  with  according  to  law. 

-  Fox  was  ordered  to  return  to  his  master.1 
A  record  of  November,  1716,  in  Chowan  Precinct 
Court,  shows  that  the  practice  applied  to  girls  as  well  as 
to  boys :  — 

Upon  the  Peticon  of  John  Swain  praying  that  Elizabeth 
Swain  his  sister  an  Orphane  Girle  bound  by  the  Precinct  Court 
of  Chowan  to  John  Worley  Esq'  May  in  the  time  of  her  service 
be  taught  to  read  by  her  said  Master  Ordered,  that  she  be 
taught  to  read.2 

These  examples  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  early 
operation  of  the  practice  in  North  Carolina.  If  the  rec- 
ords were  more  complete  considerably  earlier  examples 
would  doubtless  appear.  By  the  practice,  poor  children 
were  bound  to  masters  and  guardians  were  appointed 
for  orphans,  the  masters  or  guardians  agreeing  with  the 
local  court,  which  had  charge  of  this  dependent  class,  to 
teach  the  wards  a  trade  or  occupation  and  also  to  read 
1  Col.  Rec.,  vol.  ii,  p.  241.  2  Ibid.,  p.  266. 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  23 

and  write.  When  an  orphan  had  an  estate  the  master 
was  entitled  to  receive  remuneration  for  administering 
it;  but  if  his  estate  yielded  no  profit  the  master  ordi- 
narily agreed  to  bind  the  orphan  for  his  services.  Under 
these  conditions  the  child  likely  took  his  place  in  the 
household  on  an  equality  with  the  other  children,  and 
perhaps  received  the  same  educational  advantages 
afforded  them. 

Although  the  practice  of  apprenticing  and  binding 
orphans  and  poor  children  under  the  conditions  de- 
scribed was  more  or  less  extensive  in  the  colony  at  an 
early  date,  no  legislation  seems  to  have  been  enacted  on 
the  subject  until  1715.  In  that  year  a  law  was  passed 
by  which  no  children  were  allowed  to  be  bound  except 
by  the  precinct  court,  which  was  empowered  to  "grant 
letters  of  tuition  or  guardianship  to  such  persons  as  they 
shall  think  proper,"  for  caring  for  the  "education  of  all 
orphans  &  for  taking  care  of  their  estates.  .  .  ."  The 
law  required  that 

all  Orphans  shall  be  Educated  &  provided  for  according  to 
their  Rank  &  degree  out  of  the  Income  or  Interest  of  their 
Estate  &  Stock  if  the  same  will  be  sufficient  Otherwise  such 
Orphans  shall  be  bound  Apprentice  to  some  Handycraft  Trade 
(the  Master  or  Mistress  of  such  Orphan  not  being  of  the  Pro- 
fession called  Quakers)  till  they  shall  come  of  Age  unless  some 
kin  to  such  Orphan  will  undertake  to  maintain  &  Educate  him 
or  them  for  the  interest  or  income  of  his  or  her  Estate  without 
Diminution  of  the  Principal  whether  the  same  be  great  or 
small.  .  .  .l 

The  principal  features  of  this  legislation  are  similar  to 

the  features  of  a  law  on  the  same  subject  in  Virginia. 

Close  contact  with  that  colony,  from  which  many  of  the 

early  settlers  of  North  Carolina  came  and  in  which 

1  Col.  Rec.,  vol.  xxin,  pp.  70-71. 


24   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  poor  and  apprenticeship  laws  formed  practically  the 
only  educational  system  for  the  poorer  classes,  may  have 
influenced  the  gradual  introduction  of  apprenticeship 
practices  into  North  Carolina.  In  Virginia,  one  of  the 
first  pieces  of  apprenticeship  legislation  which  has  a  pub- 
lic educational  aspect  was  that  of  March,  1643,  when  the 
county  courts  enjoined  the  overseers  of  the  poor  and 
guardians  of  orphans 

to  educate  and  instruct  them  according  to  their  best  endeavors 
in  Christian  religion  and  in  the  rudiments  of  learning  and  to 
provide  for  them  necessaries  according  to  the  competence  of 
their  estates.  .  .  .* 

By  an  act  of  1705,  it  was  ordered  that  when  the  estate  of 
any  orphan  was  so  small 

that  no  person  will  maintain  him  for  the  profits  thereof,  then 
such  orphan  shall  be  bound  apprentice  to  some  handicraft 
trade,  or  mariner,  until  he  shall  attain  to  the  age  of  one  and 
twenty.  And  the  master  of  each  of  such  orphan  shall  be 
obliged  to  teach  him  to  read  and  write:  and  at  the  expiration 
of  his  servitude,  to  pay  and  allow  him  in  like  manner  as  is  ap- 
pointed for  servants,  by  indenture  or  custom.2 

Another  example  will  serve  to  make  clearer  the  simi- 
larity of  legislation  on  this  subject  in  the  two  colonies 
and  the  probable  influence  of  the  law  of  Virginia  on  the 
law  of  North  Carolina.  In  1748  it  was  enacted  in  the 
former  colony  that  whenever  the  profits  of  an  orphan's 
estate  were  insufficient  to  maintain  him,  such  an  orphan 
was  to  be  bound  apprentice, 

every  male  to  some  tradesman,  merchant,  mariner,  or  other 
person  approved  by  the  court,  until  he  shall  attain  the  age  of 
one  and  twenty  years,  and  every  female  to  some  suitable  trade 

1  18  Charles  I.  Hening,  Statutes,  vol.  i,  p.  261 
*  4  Anne.  Hening,  Statutes,  vol.  in,  p.  375. 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  25 

or  employment,  till  her  age  of  eighteen  years;  and  the  master 
or  mistress  of  every  such  servant  shall  find  and  provide  for  him 
or  her,  diet,  clothes,  lodgings  and  accommodations  fit  and 
necessary,  and  shall  teach,  or  cause  him  or  her  to  be  taught  to 
read  and  write,  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  or  her  apprentice- 
ship, shall  pay  every  such  servant,  the  like  allowance  as  is  by 
law  appointed  for  servants  by  indenture  or  custom.  .  .  .* 

Seven  years  later,  in  September,  1755,  there  was  en- 
acted in  North  Carolina  a  law  regulating  the  estates  of 
orphans  and  their  guardians.  The  preamble  of  this  law 
explained  the  need  for  further  legislation  on  this 
subject:  — 

Whereas,  for  want  of  proper  laws  for  regulating  guardians, 
and  the  management  of  orphans,  their  interests  and  estates 
have  been  greatly  abused  and  their  education  very  much  neg- 
lected; for  prevention  whereof  for  the  future,  be  it  enacted.  .  .  . 

By  this  law  the  church  wardens  of  every  parish  were 
to  furnish  to  the  justices  of  the  orphans'  court,  at  its 
annual  session,  the  names  of  all  children  without  guardi- 
ans. Failure  to  perform  this  duty  was  punishable  by  a 
fine  of  "ten  pounds  proclamation  money  each."  The 
court  was  to  appoint  guardians  for  all  such  children  and 
these  guardians  were  to  make  reports  to  the  court  of 
their  wards  and  apprentices.  When  the  court  "shall 
know  or  be  informed  that  any  guardian  or  guardians  by 
them  respectfully  appointed,  do  waste  or  convert  the 
money  or  estate  of  any  orphan  to  his  or  her  own  use,  or 
do  in  any  manner  mismanage  the  same  ...  or  neglects 
to  educate  or  maintain  any  orphan  according  to  his  or 
her  degree  and  circumstances,' '  the  court  was  then  em- 
powered to  establish  other  rules  and  regulations  for  the 
better  management  of  such  estate  and  "for  the  better 
1  11  George  II.  Hening,  Statutes,  vol.  v,  pp.  449  ff. 


26      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

educating  and  maintaining  such  orphans.*'  When  the 
profits  of  any  orphan's  estate  "shall  be  more  than  suffi- 
cient to  maintain  and  educate  him,"  the  surplus  was  to 
be  invested  on  good  and  sufficient  security.  But  if  the 
estate 

shall  be  of  so  small  value  that  no  person  will  educate  or  main- 
tain him  or  her  for  the  profits  thereof,  such  orphan  shall  by  the 
direction  of  the  court  be  bound  apprentice,  every  male  to  some 
tradesman,  merchant,  mariner,  or  other  person  approved  by 
the  court,  until  he  shall  attain  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and 
every  female  to  some  suitable  employment  till  her  age  of  eight- 
een years,  and  the  master  or  mistress  of  every  such  servant 
shall  find  and  provide  for  him  or  her  diet,  clothes,  lodging,  and 
accommodations  fit  and  necessary,  and  shall  teach,  or  cause 
him  or  her  to  be  taught,  to  read  and  write,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  his  or  her  apprenticeship  shall  pay  every  such  servant 
the  like  allowance  as  is  by  law  appointed  for  servants  by  inden- 
ture or  custom,  and  on  refusal  shall  be  compelled  thereto  in 
like  manner.  .  .  . 

The  act  was  to  remain  in  force  for  five  years  from 
passage. 

In  April,  1760,  a  law  similar  to  the  law  of  1755  was 
enacted,  and  two  years  later  we  find  further  legislation 
on  the  subject  of  the  maintenance  and  education  of 
orphans.  Additional  legislation  was  justified,  according 
to  the  preamble,  by  the  "experience  that  the  court  of 
each  respective  county,  exercising  the  power  of  regulat- 
ing the  education  of  orphans,  and  the  management  of 
their  estates,  have  proved  of  singular  service  to  them." 
This  differed  from  previous  legislation  in  one  essential 
point.  Formerly  the  church  wardens  of  every  parish 
were  required  to  report  to  the  court  the  names  of  or- 
phans and  poor  children  without  guardians  or  masters. 
By  this  act  that  duty  was  transferred  to  the  grand  jury 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  27 

of  every  county.  Provision  was  further  made  for  an 
orphans'  court  to  be  held  by  the  justices  of  every  inferior 
court  of  pleas  and  quarter  sessions.  This  court  was  to  be 
held  once  a  year  when  accounts  of  guardians  were  to  be 
exhibited  and  complaints  heard. 

The  educational  features  of  the  act  have  a  certain 
interest.  The  guardian  of  any  orphan  whose  estate  fur- 
nished the  orphan  an  economic  competency  was  to  su- 
pervise his  education  and  maintenance.  When  the  estate 
was  of  such  small  value  that  "no  person  will  educate  and 
maintain  him  or  her  for  the  profits  thereof,"  the  orphan 
was  to  be  bound  apprentice  by  the  court, 

every  male  to  some  tradesman,  merchant,  mariner,  or  other 
person  approved  by  the  court,  until  he  shall  attain  to  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years;  and  every  female  to  some  suitable  em- 
ployment, till  her  age  of  eighteen  years;  and  also  such  court 
may,  in  like  manner,  bind  apprentice  all  free  base  born  chil- 
dren; and  every  such  female  child  being  a  mulatto  or  mustee, 
until  she  shall  attain  the  age  of  twenty-one  years;  and  the  mas- 
ter or  mistress  of  every  such  apprentice,  shall  find  and  provide 
for  him  or  her  diet,  clothes,  lodging,  accommodations,  fit  and 
necessary;  and  shall  teach  or  cause  him  or  her  to  be  taught,  to 
read  and  write;  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  or  her  apprentice- 
ship, shall  pay  every  such  apprentice  the  like  allowance  as  is 
by  law  appointed,  for  servants  by  indenture  or  custom;  and 
on  refusal,  shall  be  compelled  thereto,  in  like  manner;  and  if  on 
complaint  made  to  the  inferior  court  of  pleas  and  quarter  ses- 
sions, it  shall  appear  that  any  such  apprentice  is  ill-used,  or  not 
taught  the  trade,  profession  or  employment  to  which  he  or  she 
is  bound,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  such  court  to  remove  and  bind 
him  or  her  to  such  other  person  or  persons  as  they  shall  think 
fit. 

With  the  exception  of  certain  vestry  acts  this  re- 
mained until  the  national  period  practically  the  only 
legislation  governing  apprentices  and  the  poor  in  the 
colony  of  North  Carolina.  The  chief  of  these  acts  was 


28   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

passed  in  January,  1764,  and  described  the  duties  of 
vestrymen  in  making  provision  for  the  clergy  and  the 
poor.  By  this  act  the  vestrymen  of  each  parish  were 
"directed  and  required,"  annually  between  Easter  and 
November,  "to  lay  a  poll  tax  on  the  taxable  persons  in 
their  parish,  not  exceeding  ten  shillings,  for  building 
churches  and  chapels,  paying  the  ministers'  salary,  pur- 
chasing a  glebe  .  .  .  encouraging  schools,  maintaining 
the  poor,  paying  clerks  and  readers,  etc."  *  No  impor- 
tant changes  were  made  in  this  legislation  until  1777 
when  an  act  was  passed  transferring  to  "overseers  of  the 
poor"  certain  powers  and  duties  which  hitherto  had 
devolved  on  the  vestrymen.2 

Here  may  be  seen  an  important  change  in  the  concep- 
tion of  educational  control.  By  the  act  of  1762,  already 
described,  the  duty  of  reporting  to  the  justices  of  the 
local  court  the  names  of  orphans  and  poor  children  with- 
out guardians  or  masters  was  transferred  from  the 
church  wardens  to  the  county  grand  jury.  By  the  Ves- 
try Act  of  1777  similar  authority  was  transferred  from 
the  vestrymen  to  the  "overseers  of  the  poor."  The  edu- 
cational significance  of  these  changes  is  important:  now 
the  authority  for  controlling  the  maintenance  and  edu- 
cation of  the  poor  is  transferred  from  the  Church  to  the 
State.  From  this  change  is  gradually  developed  the  idea 
that  caring  for  and  "educating"  the  poor  of  the  com- 
munity is  a  state  function.  This  general  change  is  also 
clearly  marked  in  the  legislation  dealing  with  the  poor 
in  Virginia.3 

In  the  main,  the  foregoing  describes  the  practice  in 

1  Col.  Rec,  vol.  xxm,  p.  601.  *  Ibid.,  vol.  xxiv,  p.  93. 

•  See  Knight,  "The  Evolution  of  Public  Education  in  Virginia,"  in 
the  Sewanee  Review,  January,  1916. 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  29 

North  Carolina  of  apprenticing  poor  children  and  or- 
phans whose  economic  competency  was  insufficient  to 
maintain  and  educate  them.  The  custom  was  not  so 
extensive  and  popular  as  in  Virginia  which  was  more 
directly  influenced  by  conditions  and  practices  in  Eng- 
land. Scarcity  of  evidence  on  the  subject  in  North  Caro- 
lina may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  children  ap- 
prenticed by  the  court  probably  took  their  places  in  the 
homes  of  their  guardians  or  masters  on  conditions  of 
maintenance  and  education  usually  allowed  other  mem- 
bers of  the  household.  The  master  was  probably  re- 
quired to  give  his  apprentice  practically  the  same  care 
and  attention  given  to  his  own  children;  for  when  it 
appeared  that  the  apprentice  was  ill-used,  not  properly 
provided  with  "accommodations  fit  and  necessary,"  or 
not  properly  taught  as  agreed  to  in  the  indentures,  he 
was  removed  and  re-apprenticed  to  some  other  master 
approved  by  the  court.  This  important  feature  of  the 
apprenticeship  practice  seems  to  have  been  a  regular 
requirement. 

A  study  of  the  system  in  North  Carolina  is  not  only 
suggestive,  but  leads  to  certain  interesting  conclusions. 
From  it  we  may  see  that  as  early  as  1695  the  practice 
required  provision  for  teaching  the  apprentice  to  read 
and  write,  and  that  the  court  released  apprentices  when 
"they  could  not  perfectly  read  and  write."  It  is  prob- 
able that  this  requirement  was  universal  in  the  colony, 
though  abundant  evidence  on  the  extent  of  the  custom 
of  apprenticing  is  unfortunately  not  accessible.  We 
have  also  seen  that  the  apprenticeship  legislation  in  the 
colony  of  Virginia  influenced  similar  legislation  in  North 
Carolina,  as  the  act  of  1748  in  the  former,  and  of  1755  in 
the  latter,  colony  give  evidence.   It  also  appeared  that 


SO      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  practice  in  North  Carolina  applied  to  orphans,  poor 
children,  free  illegitimate  children,  to  girls  as  well  as  to 
boys,  and  to  female  mulattoes  and  mustees.  Moreover, 
by  the  act  of  1715,  requiring  that  "all  Orphans  shall  be 
Educated  &  provided  for  according  to  their  Rank  and 
degree,"  the  existence  of  schools  or  other  means  of  intel- 
lectual training  is  implied.  The  language  of  the  law  of 
1755,  "neglects  to  educate  or  maintain  an  orphan  ac- 
cording to  his  or  her  degree  and  circumstances,"  and 
that  of  the  law  of  1762,  "regulating  the  education  of 
orphans,  and  the  management  of  their  estates,  have 
proved  of  singular  service  to  them,"  and  "educate  and 
maintain,"  may  be  considered  additional  evidence  that 
certain  educational  facilities,  however  meager  they  may 
have  been,  were  available  for  this  dependent  class.1 

1  The  law  of  1762  remained  strictly  in  force  for  many  years.  As  late 
as  February,  1827,  a  bill  "to  repeal  so  much  of  an  act  passed  in  1762 
as  requires  the  master  or  mistress  to  teach  or  cause  to  be  taught  colored 
apprentices  to  read  and  write"  failed  in  the  Legislature.  See  House 
Journal,  1826-27,  pp.  202,  207. 


THE  APPRENTICESHIP  SYSTEM  31 


REFERENCES 

The  Colonial  Records  of  North  Carolina;  Davis's  Revisal 
(1773);  Hening,  Statutes  of  Virginia;  Bruce,  Institutional  His- 
tory of  Virginia  in  the  Seventeenth  Century;  Clews,  Educational 
Legislation  and  Administration  of  the  Colonial  Governments; 
Nicholls,  A  History  of  the  English  Poor-Law;  Leach,  English 
Schools  at  the  Reformation;  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  edited  by 
Paul  Monroe,  vol.  v,  article,  "Poor-Laws  and  Education"; 
Knight,  "The  Evolution  of  Public  Education  in  Virginia,"  in 
the  Sewanee  Review,  January,  1916. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  How  did  the  poor-laws  and  the  apprenticeship  practices 
form  an  educational  system? 

2.  Show  how  the  system  grew  up  in  Europe  and  how  it  was 
transferred  to  this  country. 

3.  Show  how  the  practice  in  Virginia  probably  influenced 
the  custom  in  North  Carolina. 

4.  What  were  the  educational  advantages  of  such  a  system? 
What  were  the  disadvantages? 

5.  Compare  the  aim  of  education  under  this  system  with  the 
aim  of  education  to-day. 

6.  Point  out  other  relations  between  this  form  of  education 
and  our  present  public-school  system. 

7.  In  what  respect  is  our  present  system  of  education  a 
development  from  the  apprenticeship  system? 

8.  Examine  the  court  records  of  your  county  for  examples 
of  the  educational  features  of  the  apprenticeship  system. 

9.  Why  is  the  apprenticeship  practice  less  extensive  than 
formerly?  How  extensive  is  the  custom  in  North  Caro- 
lina to-day? 

10.  Examine  the  agreements  by  which  children  are  bound  out 
by  the  court  to-day  and  note  any  educational  features 
which  they  contain. 


CHAPTER  in 

UNDER  ROYAL  RULE 

It  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I  that  but  little  was 
accomplished  for  educational  improvement  under  the 
lords  proprietors.  For  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century 
after  the  transfer  of  the  colony  to  royal  control,  in  1729, 
practically  the  same  conditions  prevailed  as  before.  In 
1729  the  white  population  of  the  colony  was  estimated 
at  not  more  than  thirteen  thousand,  and  the  inhabitants 
were  sparsely  distributed.  Conditions  still  continued 
unfavorable  to  intellectual  and  educational  develop- 
ment. As  late  as  1736  the  colony  had  no  printing-press, 
no  printed  collection  of  its  laws,  and  perhaps  only  a  few 
regularly  settled  schoolmasters.  The  first  printing-press 
came  into  the  colony  in  1749  and  the  laws  were  first 
published  two  years  later.  For  a  long  time  no  govern- 
mental provision  was  made  for  schools,  but  "there  were 
many  highly  educated  citizens  scattered  throughout  the 
province,  who  lived  with  considerable  style  and  refine- 
ment. Sturdy,  honest,  and  hospitable  agriculturists 
gathered  around  themselves  elements  of  large  future 
development,  and  their  premises  showed  wealth,  indus- 
try, and  care."  Later  on  many  of  these  well-to-do  fam- 
ilies of  the  Cape  Fear  region  sent  their  sons  to  Harvard, 
those  of  the  northeast  section  sent  theirs  to  England  for 
education,  and  the  Presbyterians  of  the  interior  region 
educated  their  sons  at  Princeton.  Some  local  provision 
was  also  made  for  education,  though  the  poorer  classes 


UNDER  ROYAL  RULE  83 

of  the  population  were  neglected  and  more  or  less 
ignorant-. 

Occasional  attempts  were  made,  however,  for  educa- 
tional improvement  of  the  masses.  The  first  notable  ex- 
ample of  such  efforts  was  in  1736,  when,  in  his  message 
to  the  Assembly,  Governor  Gabriel  Johnston  said,  after 
"observing  the  deplorable  and  almost  total  want  of 
divine  worship  throughout  the  Province"  of  North 
Carolina:  — 

In  all  civilized  Societys  of  men,  it  has  always  been  looked 
upon  as  a  matter  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  their  Peace 
and  happiness,  to  polish  the  minds  of  Young  Persons  with  some 
degree  of  learning,  and  early  to  instill  into  them  the  Principles 
of  Virtue  and  religion,  and  that  the  Legislature  has  never  yet 
taken  the  least  care  to  erect  one  school,  which  deserves  the 
name  in  this  wide  extended  country,  must  in  the  judgement  of 
all  thinking  men,  be  reckoned  one  of  our  greatest  misfortunes. 
To  what  purpose  Gentlemen  is  all  your  toil  and  labour,  all 
your  pains  and  endeavours  for  the  advantage  and  enriching 
your  families  and  Posterity,  if  within  ourselves  you  cannot 
afford  them  such  an  education  as  may  qualify  them  to  be  use- 
full  to  their  Country  and  to  enjoy  what  you  leave  them  with 
decency  .  .  .  and  now  Gentlemen  represent  all  this  to  your- 
selves at  one  view;  consider  a  country  where  there  has  never 
yet  any  Provision  been  made  for  Keeping  up  the  sense  and  awe 
of  a  Deity  on  the  minds  of  People;  where  no  care  has  been 
taken  to  inspire  the  youth  with  generous  sentiments,  worthy 
Principles,  or  the  least  tincture  of  literature;  where  the  Laws 
are  dispersed  up  and  down  in  different  Places  on  loose  Papers, 
some  of  them  contradictory,  others  unintelligible.  .  .  .  Then 
consider  yourselves  as  the  Representatives  of  this  Country, 
who  have  not  only  the  power  and  means,  but  are  earnestly 
pressed  and  desired  to  remedy  these  calamities,  to  supply 
these  defects;  and  when  you  have  done  all  this,  lay  your  hands 
upon  your  hearts  and  consider  how  you  can  answer  it  to  God 
and  your  own  consciences,  how  you  can  answer  it  to  your 
Country  or  your  Posterity,  if  you  either  neglect  this  oppor- 


84       THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

tunity  of  pursuing  such  valuable  ends,  or  are  diverted  from  it 
by  the  trifling  arts  of  designing  men.1 

Three  days  later  the  Assembly  replied  sympatheti- 
cally to  the  governor's  message:  — 

We  lament  very  much  the  want  of  Divine  Public  worship  (a 
crying  scandal  in  any,  but  more  especially  in  a  Christian  Com- 
munity;) as  well  as  the  general  neglect  in  point  of  education, 
the  main  sources  of  all  disorders  and  Corruptions,  which  we 
should  rejoice  to  see  removed  and  remedeyed,  and  are  ready  to 
do  our  parts,  towards  the  reformation  of  such  flagrant  and 
prolifick  Evils. 

The  Assembly  then  assured  the  governor  "that  no 
insinuations,  no  artifices  of  any  party  or  sett  of  men 
whatsoever,  can  alter  our  sentiments  or  change  these 
our  views." 

In  October  the  committee  on  grievances  in  the  lower 
House  presented  a  list  of  grievances  which  included  the 
collection  of  quitrents  and  other  matters.  The  gover- 
nor, discussing  the  report,  regretted  that  the  committee 
had  "been  so  remiss  in  their  duty  as  to  present  so  few 
grievances  and  those  so  little  material.  In  any  other 
country  besides  this,  I  am  satisfied  they  would  have 
taken  notice  of  the  want  of  divine  worship,  the  neglect 
of  the  education  of  youth,  the  bad  state  of  your  laws  and 
the  impossibility  to  execute  them.  .  .  ."  The  next  year 
the  governor  again  called  attention,  in  his  message  to 
the  Assembly,  to  the  need  for  making  "provision  for  the 
education  of  youth." 

Nothing  was  done  for  education,  however,  until  1745, 
when  an  act  was  passed  empowering  the  town  commis- 
sioners of  Edenton  to  build  a  schoolhouse,  the  expense 
of  which  was  to  be  defrayed  by  money  arising  from  the 
*  Col.  Rec.,  vol.  iv,  pp.  227,  228. 


UNDER  ROYAL  RULE  35 

sale  of  town  lots  and  by  donations  and  subscriptions 
which  the  commissioners  were  authorized  to  receive. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  house  was  ever  built. 
Again  in  1749  a  bill  was  introduced  looking  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  free  school,  but  it  was  never  enacted  into 
law.  In  1752  effort  was  again  made  to  erect  schools,  and 
the  lower  House  of  the  Assembly  promised  the  governor 
to  take  measures  to  promote  the  "  virtuous  education  of 
our  youth,"  but  this  failed  also.  Two  years  later,  in 
1754,  the  sum  of  £6000  was  appropriated  by  the  Assem- 
bly for  the  purpose  of  building  a  school.  Later  "a  rea- 
sonable tax  on  each  negro"  in  the  colony  was  promised 
to  supplement  a  liberal  offer  of  George  Vaughan,  an 
English  merchant,  who  agreed  to  give  "one  thousand 
pounds  yearly  forever"  to  promote  education  among 
the  Indians  of  the  province,  but  this  tax  was  agreed  to 
on  condition  that  Vaughan  would  allow  his  donation 
to  "extend  as  an  academy  or  seminary  of  religion  and 
learning  to  all  His  Majesty's  subjects  in  North  Caro- 
lina." After  legal  provision  was  made  for  the  school, 
however,  the  funds  appropriated  were  used  for  war  and 
other  purposes  with  the  result  that  the  Vaughan  plan 
never  materialized. 

Governor  Dobbs,  who  succeeded  Governor  Johnston, 
was,  like  his  predecessor,  solicitous  for  the  encourage- 
ment and  promotion  of  education,  and  continually 
urged  the  establishment  of  "  proper  schools  in  the  prov- 
ince, for  the  education  of  youth.  ..."  In  November, 
1758,  the  lower  House  of  the  Assembly  assured  the  gov- 
ernor "that  nothing  shall  be  wanting  to  promote  a  work 
of  such  interesting  consequences,  though  at  present  we 
are  somewhat  at  a  loss  in  what  manner  to  accomplish 
it .  .  .  ";  and  the  upper  House  declared  that  it  had  "at 


$6      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

heart  nothing  more  than  the  defences  of  the  country,  the 
promoting  true  religion,  the  education  of  our  youth  in 
the  reformed  Protestant  religion  and  moral  virtues.  .  .  ." 
In  1759,  and  again  in  1764,  the  governor  petitioned  the 
Board  of  Trade  to  permit  a  reissue  in  bills  of  the  money 
originally  intended  for  education,  but  this  was  refused, 
as  was  also  the  request  that  the  colony's  share  of  the  re- 
imbursement for  war  purposes  be  applied  to  schools. 

In  November,  1760,  Dobbs  again  urged  the  Assembly 
to  "seriously  consider  of  giving  encouragement  for 
schools,"  and  as  usual  the  Assembly  promised  cooper- 
ation. In  December,  1762,  the  Reverend  James  Reed 
preached  before  the  Assembly  a  sermon  on  the  impor- 
tance of  education  and  this  sermon  was  printed  at  public 
expense  and  distributed  in  the  colony.  Dr.  Weeks  says 
that  this  was  probably  the  first  public  expenditure  for 
education  in  the  province. 

Only  a  few  other  efforts  were  made  during  the  colonial 
period  to  promote  education,  and  fewer  still  were  suc- 
cessful. In  January,  1764,  Thomas  Tomlinson  opened  a 
private  school  in  Newbern  and  the  Reverend  James 
Reed  reported  that  subscriptions  in  notes  amounting  to 
£110  sterling  had  been  secured  for  the  purpose  of  build- 
ing a  house.  Later  he  and  numerous  residents  of  the 
town  petitioned  Governor  Tryon  to  solicit  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  to  settle  a  salary  on 
Tomlinson.  This  the  governor  did,  and  the  Society 
responded  favorably.  The  school  had  at  that  time  about 
thirty  pupils.  In  1766  further  provision  was  made  for 
establishing  a  schoolhouse  in  the  town  of  Newbern.  In 
order  that  the  benefits  of  the  school  "may  be  as  exten- 
sive as  possible,  and  that  the  poor  who  may  be  unable  to 
educate  their  children  may  enjoy  the  benefits  thereof," 


UNDER  ROYAL  RULE  S7 

an  import  tax  of  one  penny  a  gallon  was  levied  on  all 
rum  and  other  liquors  brought  into  the  Neuse  River  for 
seven  years,  and  with  this  revenue  ten  poor  children 
were  to  be  educated.  This  was  the  first  school  or  acad- 
emy incorporated  in  North  Carolina  and  this  was  the 
first  law  of  any  great  importance  passed  in  the  colony  on 
the  subject  of  education.  In  1767  and  1768  efforts  were 
made  to  establish  a  school  in  the  town  of  Edenton,  but 
attempted  legislation  on  the  subject  failed  temporarily 
when  the  Assembly  opposed  the  enforcement  of  the 
terms  of  the  Schism  Act  which  required  all  teachers  to 
be  members  of  the  Established  Church.  Later,  however, 
the  school  was  chartered  as  the  Edenton  Academy  and 
under  terms  similar  to  those  of  the  charter  of  the  school 
at  Newbern.  Under  the  terms  of  the  reproduced  Schism 
Act,  no  person  could  teach  in  either  of  these  schools  ex- 
cept members  of  the  Established  Church.  This  require- 
ment, which  proved  so  exasperating  to  the  colonists, 
permitted  no  one,  under  penalty  of  imprisonment  for 
three  months,  to  keep  a  private  or  public  school  or  to  act 
as  tutor  or  usher,  unless  he  first  obtained  license  from 
the  Bishop  of  London  and  conformed  to  the  Anglican 
liturgy.  Such  a  requirement  was  attended  by  many 
evils  and  prevented  the  dissenters  in  the  colony  from 
providing  educational  facilities  for  their  children. 

Notable  educational  advancement  through  private 
incorporated  academies  began  before  the  close  of  the 
colonial  period,  however,  and  continued  through  the 
first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  later.  One  of 
the  factors  influencing  this  development  was  the  immi- 
gration as  early  as  1740  of  the  Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish 
into  the  colony.  Thousands  of  these  people,  disabled  in 
consequence  of  their  religion,  sought  homes  in  America, 


J 


38       THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH   CAROLINA 

and  many  of  them  came  to  North  Carolina  and  settled 
in  the  Piedmont  section  of  the  State.  In  every  commu- 
nity where  they  came  a  schoolhouse  and  church  sprang 
up  simultaneously  with  the  settlement;  "almost  invari- 
ably as  soon  as  a  neighborhood  was  settled  preparations 
were  made  for  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  by  a  regular 
stated  pastor,  and  wherever  a  pastor  was  located,  in 
that  congregation  there  was  a  classical  school.  .  .  ." 
Before  1750  the  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  Presby- 
terian synods  began  to  send  missionaries  into  North 
Carolina,  and  these  helped  to  stimulate  educational 
activity.  Moreover,  Princeton  College  proved  an  edu- 
cational impulse  to  the  State.  Scores  of  graduates  of 
that  institution,  some  natives  of  North  Carolina  who 
went  there  for  their  training,  and  many  from  other 
States,  cast  their  lot  here  and  for  half  a  century  had  a 
predominating  influence  in  the  religious  and  educational 
lifex)f  the  State.  One  of  the  first  of  these  was  the  Rever- 
end Hugh  McAden,  a  graduate  of  the  class  of  1733  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
South. 

The  German  element,  migrating  from  Pennsylvania, 
proved  another  educational  influence.  The  migration  of 
these  people  began  as  early  as  1745,  and  by  1785  there 
were  as  many  as  fifteen  thousand  of  them  in  the  State. 
Like  the  Scotch-Irish,  they  established  churches  and 
schools  as  soon  as  they  had  made  a  settlement,  and  if 
there  was  a  scarcity  of  teachers  among  them  the  needed 
supply  was  brought  in  from  Germany.  The  coming  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Quakers  between  1743  and  1785  also 
added  a  certain  educational  and  moral  strength  to  the 
colony. 

The  first  classical  school  established  in  the  colony 


UNDER  ROYAL  RULE  39 

under  the  Presbyterian  influence  was  Tate's  Academy, 
founded  in  Wilmington  in  1760,  by  the  Reverend  James 
Tate  and  continued  by  him  until  1778.  In  the  same  year 
that  this  school  was  founded,  Crowfield  Academy  was 
opened  in  Mecklenburg  County,  near  the  present  loca- 
tion of  Davidson  College.  This  school  had  an  extensive 
influence  and  furnished  a  classical  training  to  many 
young  men  who  later  became  prominent  in  the  life  of  the 
State.  It  was  from  this  academy  that  Davidson  College 
is  said  to  have  grown. 

Perhaps  the  most  illustrious  educator  of  this  period 
was  Dr.  David  Caldwell,  whose  celebrated  "log college," 
which  was  located  near  Greensboro,  served  for  so  many 
years  in  the  capacity  of  academy,  college,  and  theologi- 
cal seminary.  The  school  was  founded  in  1767  and  in  a 
short  time  became  the  most  important  institution  of 
learning  in  North  Carolina  and  one  of  the  most  influen- 
tial in  the  entire  South.  Thoroughness  rather  than  an 
extensive  curriculum  was  its  chief  feature.  The  average 
annual  enrollment  in  the  school  was  between  fifty  and 
sixty,  and  it  is  said  that  more  men  entered  the  learned 
professions  from  its  student  body  than  from  any  other 
school  in  the  South.  Five  of  Dr.  Caldwell's  students 
became  governors  of  States,  several  went  to  Congress, 
and  many  became  prominent  as  jurists,  physicians,  and 
preachers.  But  for  a  temporary  interruption  by  the 
British  in  1781  the  institution  had  an  unbroken  career 
of  success  until  1822,  when  old  age  compelled  its  brilliant 
leader  to  retire  from  active  service. 

Clio's  Nursery  and  Science  Hall  was  a  school  con- 
ducted in  Iredell  County  by  Dr.  James  Hall,  of  the  class 
of  1774  of  Princeton,  a  man  of  considerable  ability  as 
teacher  and  preacher.  The  school  was  opened  about  the 


40      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

beginning  of  the  Revolution.  The  "academy  of  sci- 
ences "  in  which  Dr.  Hall  was  the  only  instructor  was 
conducted  in  connection  with  the  Nursery  and  was  per- 
haps the  first  scientific  course  in  the  Sfete.  Many  young 
men  who  later  became  prominent  in  public  life  were 
students  of  Dr.  Hall. 

Zion  Parnassus,  another  Presbyterian  school  of  con- 
siderable influence,  was  established  at  Thyatira,  near 
Salisbury,  in  1785,  by  the  Reverend  Samuel  C.  Mc- 
Corkle,  a  graduate  of  Princeton  of  the  class  of  1772,  and 
a  man  of  force  and  ability.  This  school  is  best  known  for 
its  normal  department,  which  was  the  first  attempt  at 
teacher  training  in  the  State  and  one  of  the  first  in  this 
country,  and  for  its  assistance  of  tuition  and  books  to 
worthy  students.  The  school  maintained  a  high  order 
of  scholarship  and  had  an  extensive  influence.  Six  of  the 
seven  members  of  the  first  graduating  class  of  the  state 
university  received  their  college  preparation  in  this 
school.  After  Dr.  McCorkle's  death  in  1811  the  institu- 
tion was  suspended,  but  it  was  later  opened  in  Salisbury 
where  for  many  years  it  was  conducted  as  the  Salisbury 
High  School. 

Queen's  College,  also  known  as  Queen's  Museum,  was 
another  Presbyterian  school  and  the  most  important 
institution  for  higher  education  in  the  colony,  though 
its  career  was  brief  and  beset  with  numerous  obstacles. 
This  was  the  last  institution  to  seek  incorporation  from 
the  king  and  the  first  to  receive  a  charter  from  the  new 
State.  The  school  had  its  beginning  in  the  work  of  the 
Reverend  Joseph  Alexander,  a  graduate  of  Princeton  of 
the  class  of  1760,  who,  with  a  Mr.  Benedict,  established 
a  small  classical  school  at  the  Sugar  Creek  Presbyterian 
Church  in  a  prosperous  and  intelligent  community  near 


UNDER  ROYAL  RULE  41 

Charlotte,  in  1767.  In  December,  1770,  it  was  chartered 
by  the  Assembly  as  Queen's  Museum,  but  the  charter 
was  repealed  by  the  king  and  council.  Later  a  second 
charter  was  secured  only  to  meet  the  same  fate.  The 
chartering  of  this  school  furnished  the  first  clear  example 
of  the  operation  of  the  reproduced  Schism  Act  in  the 
colony.  The  organizers  of  the  institution  were  willing 
to  allow  a  member  of  the  Established  Church  to  serve 
as  president,  but  insisted  that  its  trustees  and  instruc- 
tors should  be  free  from  the  requirement  of  the  Schism 
Act.  Fear  that  the  school  would  become  a  great  and 
permanent  advantage  to  the  dissenters  and  a  "fountain 
of  republicanism"  led  to  a  repeal  of  its  charter.  In  spite 
of  royal  disfavor,  however,  the  institution  flourished 
without  a  charter.  The  house  was  used  for  debating  and 
literary  clubs  and  accommodated  the  meeting  which 
formulated  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. In  1775  the  name  was  changed  to  Liberty  Hall 
Academy,  and  two  years  later  it  received  a  charter  from 
the  new  State  Government.  The  institution  soon  came 
directly  under  the  control  of  the  Presbyterians.  The 
curriculum  was  advanced  for  the  time,  though  no  degrees 
were  ever  awarded;  diplomas  and  certificates  of  attend- 
ance were  given,  however.  The  school  continued  until 
1780  when  it  was  suspended,  never  to  be  reopened. 

Providence  Academy,  near  Charlotte,  established  by 
the  Reverend  James  Wallis  in  1792,  Poplar  Tent  Acad- 
emy in  Cabarrus  County,  established  by  the  Reverend 
Robert  Archibald  in  1778,  and  a  school  established  in 
Fayetteville  by  the  Reverend  David  Ker  in  1791,  were 
other  schools  of  influence  and  usefulness  founded  and 
promoted  by  the  Presbyterians  of  North  Carolina  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 


42      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 


REFERENCES 

Swann's  Revised  (1752) ;  Davis's  Revised  (1773) ;  The  Colonial 
Records  of  North  Carolina;  Weeks,  Libraries  and  Literature  in 
North  Carolina  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  The  Press  in  North 
Carolina  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Church  and  State  in  North 
Carolina,  The  Religious  Development  in  the  Province  of  North 
Carolina,  and  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of 
the  Common  Schools  of  North  Carolina;  Raper,  The  Church  and 
Private  Schools  in  North  Carolina;  Cheshire,  Sketches  of  Church 
History  in  North  Carolina;  McRee,  The  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  James  Iredell;  Hawks,  History  of  North  Carolina;  Wad- 
dell,  A  Colonial  Officer  and  His  Times;  Foote,  Sketches  of  North 
Carolina;  Smith,  History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina; 
Brickell,  A  Natural  History  of  North  Carolina;  Cyclopedia  of 
Education,  edited  by  Paul  Monroe,  vol.  ii,  article,  "Colonial 
Period  in  American  Education." 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Why  was  the  colony  of  North  Carolina  transferred  from 
proprietary  to  royal  management? 

2.  What  political  and  social  changes,  if  any,  took  place  as  a 
result  of  the  transfer? 

8.  Were  conditions  as  favorable  for  education  after  the 
transfer  as  under  the  lords  proprietors? 

4.  What  were  some  of  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  educa- 
tional development  in  the  colony  between  1729  and  the 
Revolutionary  period? 

5.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  mother  country  toward 
education  in  the  colonies  during  this  time? 

6.  What  attempts  were  made  for  the  education  of  the 
masses  during  these  years? 

7.  How  did  England's  attitude  toward  the  education  of  the 
masses  reflect  itself  in  her  policy  toward  the  colonies  in 
the  eighteenth  century? 

8.  What  was  being  done  for  education  in  the  other  colonies 
between  1700  and  1775? 


UNDER  ROYAL  RULE  43 

9.  Make  a  study  of  immigration  to  North  Carolina  in 
the  eighteenth  century  and  point  out  its  educational 
influence. 

10.  Study  the  educational  influence  of  the  religious  denomi- 
nations in  North  Carolina  before  1800. 

11.  What  was  the  actual  educational  influence  of  the  Schism 
Act  in  North  Carolina? 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT 

With  the  American  Revolution  and  the  beginning  of 
the  national  period,  a  new  type  of  institution  began  to 
develop  in  the  United  States  and  to  provide  more  or  less 
extensive  educational  facilities.  This  new  school  was 
the  academy,  the  forerunner  of  the  modern  public  high 
school,  and  from  the  Revolutionary  period  until  near 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  academy  was 
recognized  as  the  leader  in  secondary  education  in 
this  country.  Its  development  was  demanded  by  the 
changed  conditions  of  the  time.  During  colonial  days 
the  Latin  Grammar  School,  which  was  largely  repro- 
duced from  the  English  type,  was  narrow  in  its  curricu- 
lum, the  classics  occupying  chief  place,  and  its  primary 
purpose  was  to  prepare  for  college.  This  institution  was 
therefore  naturally  exclusive  in  character.  After  the 
Revolution,  however,  the  tendency  toward  religious  di- 
versity and  the  gradual  growth  of  the  democratic  spirit 
demanded  a  type  of  institution  which  would  furnish  a 
training  to  the  majority  who  would  not  go  to  college  and 
one  more  nearly  suited  to  the  demands  of  the  changed 
conditions. 

This  new  type  of  school  was  usually  private,  but  in 
most  cases  was  recognized  by  the  State,  and  in  a  few 
States,  especially  in  New  York  and  Georgia,  it  was 
given  state  support.  Tuition  charges  were  always  made. 
No  degrees  were  given,  but  diplomas  and  certificates 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  45 

were  awarded.  The  institution  flourished  until  about 
1850  when  it  began  to  decline,  and  later  it  was  generally 
deposed  by  the  public  high  school  which  began  to  de- 
velop after  the  Civil  War. 

With  the  granting  of  a  charter  to  Liberty  Hall  Acad- 
emy in  1777, l  North  Carolina  began  to  recognize  acade- 
mies, which  for  half  a  century  or  more  had  an  extensive 
growth  in  the  State.2  Science  Hall,  at  Hillsboro,  was 
the  next  to  secure  a  charter,  in  1779,  and  was  given  the 
same  privileges  as  were  given  Liberty  Hall,  that  of  a 
corporation,  of  naming  its  own  trustees,  and  of  awarding 
diplomas  and  certificates  of  study.  In  1784  Science  Hall 
was  given  the  privilege  of  raising  money  by  lottery,  per- 
haps "the  first  instance  in  the  history  of  the  free  State 
in  which  the  aid  of  the  Government  to  schools  extended 
beyond  the  mere  formal  granting  of  charters.'* 

Granville  Hall,  in  Granville  County,  was  chartered  in 
October,  1779,  with  Richard  Caswell,  Governor,  and 
Abner  Nash  and  Thomas  Benbury,  President  of  the 
Senate  and  Speaker  of  the  House,  respectively,  the  lead- 
ing trustees.  Considerable  money  seems  to  have  been 
subscribed  for  the  school  and  the  trustees  were  author- 
ized to  purchase  five  hundred  acres  of  land  and  to  erect 
buildings.  The  Reverend  Henry  Pattillo,  another 
Princeton  man,  a  prominent  early  teacher  of  the  State 

1  Seep.  41. 

*  Jedidiah  Morse,  in  his  American  Universal  Geography,  which  first 
appeared  in  1793,  says  of  North  Carolina:  "There  is  a  good  academy 
at  Warrenton,  another  at  Williamsborough  in  Granville,  and  three  or 
four  others  in  the  State,  of  considerable  note."  The  identical  state- 
ment, it  is  interesting  to  observe,  also  appeared  in  W.  Winterbotham's 
An  Historical,  Geographical,  Commercial,  and  Philosophical  View  of  the 
American  United  States,  and  of  the  European  Settlements  in  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  a  work  in  four  volumes  which  was  published  in 
London  in  1705. 


46   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

and  an  author  of  some  note,   was   principal  of  this 
school.1 

Smith  Academy,  in  Edenton,  chartered  by  the  Assem- 
bly in  1782,  was  the  gift  of  Robert  Smith,  a  lawyer- 
merchant  of  that  town.  The  following  year  the  Assem- 
bly chartered  Innes  Academy  in  Wilmington,  a  school 
founded  by  a  gift  made  by  the  following  portion  of  the 
will  of  Colonel  James  Innes,  made  in  1754:  — 

I  also  give  and  bequeth  att  the  Death  of  my  Loving  Wife 
Jean  Innes  my  Plantation  Called  Point  Pleasant  and  the  Op- 
posite mash  Land  over  the  River  for  which  ther  is  a  Seperate 
Patent,  Two  Negero  Young  Woomen  One  Negero  young  Man 
and  there  Increase,  all  the  Stock  of  Cattle  and  Hogs,  halfe  the 
Stock  of  Horses  belonging  at  the  time  to  that  Plantation  With 
all  my  Books,  and  One  Hundred  Pounds  Sterling  or  the  Equiv- 
alent thereunto  in  the  Currency  of  the  Country  For  the  Use  of 
a  Free  School  for  the  benefite  of  the  Youth  of  North  Carolina. 
And  to  see  that  this  part  of  my  Will  is  dewly  executed  att  the 
time,  I  appoint  the  Colonell  of  the  New  Hanover  Regement, 
the  Parson  of  Wilmington  Church  and  the  Vestrey  for  the  time 
being,  or  the  Majority  of  them  as  they  shall  from  time  to  time 
be  choised  or  appointed.  .  .  . 

The  act  of  incorporation  provided  that 

the  rector,  professors,  and  tutors  of  this  academy,  and  all  other 
academies  and  public  schools  in  this  state  established  by  law, 
shall  be  exempt  from  military  duty  during  their  continuance 
in  those  offices,  provided  the  number  of  teachers  in  any  of  the 
said  academies  or  public  schools  shall  not  exceed  three;  pro- 
vided, also,  that  all  scholars  and  students  entering  into  said 
academy,  or  any  other  public  school  and  being  of  the  age  of 
fifteen  years  or  under  at  the  time  of  entering,  shall,  dur- 
ing their  continuance  thereat,  be  exempt  from  all  military 
duties. 

1  Weeks,  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the  Com- 
mon Schools  of  North  Carolina. 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  47 

Of  the  life  and  work  of  Innes  Academy  little  is  known. 
A  building  was  begun  soon  after  the  charter  was  granted, 
but  in  1803  the  school  seemed  to  be  in  unfortunate  cir- 
cumstances, and  the  hope  of  the  donor  was  probably 
never  realized. 

The  only  other  example  of  similar  individual  interest 
in  education  during  the  Colonial  period  was  the  will  of 
James  Winwright,  of  Carteret  County,  which  was  made 
in  1744:  — 

I  will  and  appoint  that  the  yearly  Rents  and  profits  of  all  the 
Town  land  and  Houses  in  Beaufort  Town  Belonging  unto  me 
with  the  other  Land  adjoining  thereto  (which  I  purchased  of 
John  Pindar)  after  the  Decease  of  my  wife  Ann  to  be  applyed 
to  the  Uses  hereinafter  Mentioned  for  Ever  (to  wit)  for  The 
encouragement  of  a  Sober  discreet  Quallifyed  Man  to  teach  a 
School  at  least  Reading  Writing  Vulgar  and  Decimal  Arith- 
metick  in  the  aforesd.  town  of  Beaufort,  wch  said  Man  Shall 
be  Chosen  and  appointed  by  the  Chair  Man  (or  the  Next  in 
Commission)  of  Carteret  County  Court  and  one  of  Church 
Wardens  of  St.  John  parish  in  the  aforesd.  County  and  Their 
Successors  for  Ever,  also  I  give  and  Bequeath  the  Summ  of 
Fifty  pounds  Sterling  (provided  that  my  estate  Shall  be  Worth 
so  much  after  my  Just  Debts  and  other  Legacys  are  paid  and 
Discharged)  to  be  applyed  for  the  Building  and  finishing  of  a 
Creditable  House  for  a  School  and  Dwelling  house  for  the 
Master  to  be  Erected  and  Built  on  Some  part  of  my  Land 
Near  the  White  house  Which  I  bought  of  the  aforesaid  Pindar, 
and  my  True  Intent  and  Meaning  is  that  all  the  yearly  profits 
and  advantages  arising  by  the  aforesd.  Town  Lotts  and  Lands 
thereunto  adjoining  as  aforesd.  with  the  Use  of  the  sd  Land  for 
Making  and  Improving  a  plantation  for  the  planting  and  Rais- 
ing of  Corn,  etc.  (if  the  aforesd.  Master  or  teacher  of  sd.  School 
Shall  think  proper  to  plant  and  Improve  the  same)  be  entirely 
for  the  use  and  Benefitt  of  ye  sd.  Master  and  his  Successors 
During  his  and  their  Good  Behaviour,  —  Also  that  the  sd. 
Master  Shall  not  be  obliged  to  teach  or  take  under  his  Care 
any  Shoolar  or  Schoolars  Imposed  on  him  by  the  Trustees 


48   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

herein  Mentioned  or  their  successors  or  by  any  other  person, 
But  shall  have  free  Liberty  to  teach  and  take  under  his  care 
Such  and  so  many  Schoolars  as  he  shall  think  Convenient  and 
to  Receive  his  Reward  for  the  Teaching  of  them  as  he  and  the 
persons  tendering  them  shall  agree. 

There  is  no  record  that  a  school  was  ever  established 
on  this  foundation. 

In  April  1783,  the  Assembly  incorporated  Martin 
Academy,  in  what  is  now  Washington  County,  Tennes- 
see, with  the  same  powers  as  were  granted  Liberty  Hall 
Academy  in  Charlotte.  This  school,  which  is  said  to  be 
the  first  educational  institution  established  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  became  Washington  College  in  1795.  In 
1785  Davidson  Academy,  at  Nashville,  was  chartered 
by  the  Assembly  of  North  Carolina.  In  1806  this  school 
was  rechartered  as  Cumberland  College,  and  in  1826  as 
the  University  of  Nashville,  which  had  a  long  and  useful 
career.  In  1875  an  arrangement  was  made  between  this 
institution  and  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  Fund  by 
which  the  Peabody  Normal  School  developed  and  later 
absorbed  the  University  of  Nashville. 

From  1785  until  1825  or  later,  various  other  schools 
and  academies  were  chartered  by  authority  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  though  little  is  known  of  the  career  of 
many  of  them  subsequent  to  their  incorporation.  The 
privileges  accorded  these  schools  were  usually  the  same. 
Certificates  could  be  granted,  but  degrees  were  not 
allowed.  The  pupils  and  teachers  were  occasionally  ex- 
empted from  military  duty,  now  and  then  the  school 
property  was  exempted  from  taxation,  and  occasionally 
permission  was  given  to  raise  funds  by  lottery.  In  most 
cases  the  trustees  selected  the  teachers  and  had  general 
control  over  the  school.    The  number  of  schools  thus 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  49 

chartered  during  these  years,  from  1785  to  1825,  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  summary:  l 

In  1785:  Dobbs  Academy  at  Kinston,  and  Grove 
Academy  in  Duplin  County. 

In  1786:  Franklin  Academy  at  Louisburg,  Pittsboro 
Academy  in  Chatham  County,  Pitt  Academy  at  Green- 
ville, and  Warrenton  Academy  in  Warren  County. 

In  1789:  Richmond  Academy  in  Richmond  County, 
and  the  Currituck  Seminary  of  Learning  in  Currituck 
County. 

In  1791:  Onslow  Academy  in  Onslow  County,  and 
Stokes  Seminary  at  Wadesboro. 

In  1793:  Tarboro  Academy  in  Edgecombe  County  and 
Lumberton  Academy  and  Raft-Swamp  Academy  in 
Robeson  County. 

In  1797:  Murfreesboro  Academy  in  Hertford  County, 
Montgomery  Seminary  in  Montgomery  County,  and 
Bladen  Academy  at  Elizabethtown. 

In  1798:  Unity  Academy  in  Randolph  County,  Adams 
Creek  Academy  in  Craven  County,  Smithville  Academy 
in  Brunswick  County,  Salisbury  Academy  in  Rowan 
County,  and  an  academy  in  Guilford  County. 

In  1799:  Fayetteville  Seminary  in  Cumberland 
County,  Peasley  Academy  in  Moore  County,  and  Wil- 
liamsboro  Franklin  Library  Society  in  Granville  County. 

In  1800:  Sneedsboro  Academy  in  Anson  County,  and 
Eden  ton  Academy  at  Edenton. 

In  1801:  Union  Meeting  House  Academy  in  Duplin 
County,  Clio  Montana  Seminary  in  Rockingham 
County,  and  Raleigh  Academy  at  Raleigh. 

In    1802:   Franklin   Academy   in   Franklin  County, 

1  See  Weeks,  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the 
Common  Schools  of  North  Carolina. 


50       THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Wadesboro  Academy  in  Anson  County,  Caswell  Acad- 
emy at  Yancey ville  and  Spring  Hill  Seminary  in  Lenoir 
County. 

In  1804 :  Cedar  Grove  Academy  in  Richmond  County, 
Wilmington  Academy  at  Wilmington  and  Nixonton 
Academy  in  Pasquotank  County. 

In  1805:  Philomathia  Academy  in  Wilkes  County, 
Hico  Academy  in  Caswell  County,  Solemn  Grove 
Academy  in  Moore  County,  Green  Academy  (later 
changed  to  Hookerton  Academy)  in  Green  County,  and 
Union  Hill  Academy  in  Buncombe  County. 

In  1806:  Oxford  Academy  in  Rowan  County,  Windsor 
Academy  in  Bertie  County,  Mount  Clio  Academy  in 
Robeson  County,  Rutherford  Academy  in  Rutherford 
County,  and  Union  Hall  School  in  Perquimans  County. 

In  1807:  Trenton  Academy  in  Jones  County,  Ports- 
mouth Academy  in  Carteret  County,  Indian  Woods 
Academy  in  Bertie  County,  and  Elizabeth  City  Acad- 
emy in  Pasquotank  County. 

In  1808:  Washington  Academy  in  Beaufort  County, 
and  Zion  Parnassus  Academy  in  Robeson  County. 

In  1809 :  Onslow  Academy  in  Onslow  County,  Thisbe 
Academy  in  Guilford  County,  Hertford  Academy  in 
Hertford  County,  Green  Hill  Academy  in  Haywood 
County,  Laurel  Hill  Academy  in  Richmond  County, 
Mount  Parnassus  Academy  in  Moore  County,  Fayette- 
ville  Academy  in  Cumberland  County,  Newland  Acad- 
emy in  Pasquotank  County,  Vine  Hill  Academy  in  Hali- 
fax County,  and  Germantown  Academy  in  Stokes 
County. 

In  1810:  Carteret  Academy  in  Carteret  County, 
Jonesboro  Academy  in  Camden  County,  Wilkesboro 
Academy  in  Wilkes  County,  Swansboro  Academy  in 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  51 

Onslow  County,  Springfield  Academy  in  Halifax 
County,  Poplar  Tent  Academy  in  Cabarrus  County, 
Elizabethtown  Academy  in  Bladen  County,  Plymouth 
Academy  in  Washington  County,  Montpelier  Acad- 
emy in  Granville  County,  Nutbush  Mineral  Springs 
Academy  in  Granville  County,  and  the  Waynesboro 
Academy. 

In  1811:  Euphronean  Academy  in  Moore  County, 
Oxford  Academy  at  Oxford,  and  New  Providence 
Academy  in  Mecklenburg  County. 

In  1812:  Snow  Hill  Academy  in  Greene  County,  Phil- 
adelphus  Academy  in  Robeson  County,  Rocky  River 
Academy  in  Cabarrus  County,  and  the  Newbern 
Female  Charitable  Seminary  at  Newbern. 

In  1813:  Greene  Academy  in  Greene  County,  Goshen 
Academy  in  Duplin  County,  Tarboro  Academy  in  Edge- 
combe County,  Williamsboro  Academy  in  Granville 
County,  Pleasant  Retreat  Academy  in  Lincoln  County, 
Female  Orphan  Asylum  Society  at  Fayetteville,  Mili- 
tary and  Literary  Society  of  Lenoir  County,  Free 
School  in  Wayne  County,  and  the  North  Carolina  Bible 
Society. 

In  1814:  Union  Academy  in  Halifax  County,  Green- 
ville Academy  in  Pitt  County,  Hillsboro  Academy  at 
Hillsboro,  Rush  Academy  in  Hyde  County,  Louisburg 
Female  Academy  at  Louisburg,  Free  School  in  Duplin 
County,  and  Clio  Academy  in  Iredell  County.  The 
name  of  this  last  institution  was  changed  to  Statesville 
Academy  in  1815.  It  had  been  in  existence  many  years 
prior  to  its  chartering. 

In  1816:  Williamston  Academy  in  Martin  County, 
Pleasant  Grove  Academy  in  Perquimans  County,  and 
Greensboro  Academy  at  Greensboro. 


52      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

In  1817:  Fairfield  School  in  Lenoir  County,  New 
Prospect  Academy  in  Perquimans  County,  Blakely 
Academy  at  Pittsboro,  and  the  Female  Benevolent 
Society  at  Wilmington. 

In  1818:  Milton  Female  Academy  in  Caswell  County, 
Wayne  Academy  in  Wayne  County,  Jonesville  Acad- 
emy in  Surry  County,  Haywood  Academy  in  Chatham 
County,  Asheville  Academy  at  Asheville,  Lawrenceville 
Academy  in  Montgomery  County,  Hilliardston  Acad- 
emy in  Nash  County,  Forest  Hill  Academy  in  Wake 
County,  Trenton  Academy  in  Jones  County,  and  Fe- 
male Academy  in  Orange  County. 

In  1819:  Enfield  Academy  in  Halifax  County,  Cam- 
den Academy  in  Camden  County,  Wilkesboro  Academy 
in  Wilkes  County,  Smithfield  Academy  in  Johnston 
County,  Madison  Academy  in  Rockingham  County, 
Lumberton  Academy  in  Tyrrell  County,  New  Salem 
Library  Society  in  Randolph  County,  and  the  Leaks- 
ville  Female  Academy. 

In  1820:  Spring  Hill  Academy  in  Gates  County,  Con- 
cord Academy  in  Perquimans  County,  Shocco  Female 
Academy  in  Warren  County,  Elizabeth  City  Academy 
in  Pasquotank  County,  Farnewell  Grove  Academy  in 
Halifax  County,  and  Carraway  Library  Society  in 
Randolph  County. 

In  1821 :  Lincolnton  Female  Academy  at  Lincolnton, 
Sardis  Academy  in  Johnston  County,  Clinton  Academy 
in  Sampson  County,  Midway  Academy  in  Franklin 
County,  Union  Library  Society  in  Iredell  County, 
Spring  Grove  Academy  in  Anson  County,  Halifax  Acad- 
emy at  Halifax,  Raleigh  Female  Benevolent  Society  at 
Raleigh,  Liberty  Male  Academy  at  Charlotte,  and 
Charlotte  Female  Academy  at  Charlotte. 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  53 

In  1822:  Ebenezer  Academy  in  Iredell  County,  Cul- 
peper  Academy  in  Anson  County,  Franklin  Library 
Society  at  Hillsboro,  Miltonsville  Academy  in  Anson 
County,  Hopewell  Academy  in  Edgecombe  County, 
Durham's  Creek  Academy  in  Beaufort  County,  Rich- 
land Creek  Library  Society  in  Guilford  County,  and  the 
Shady  Grove  Male  and  Female  Academy  in  Warren 
County. 

In  1823:  Bertie  Union  Academy  in  Bertie  County, 
Lumberton  Academy  in  Robeson  County,  Milton  Male 
Academy  in  Carteret  County,  Friendship  Academy  in 
Edgecombe  County,  Town  Creek  Academy  in  Edge- 
combe County,  Sandy  Creek  Library  Society  in  David- 
son County,  Morganton  Academy  at  Morganton,  and 
the  New  Providence  Library  Company  in  Mecklenburg 
County. 

In  1824:  Swansboro  Academy  in  Onslow  County, 
Wake  Union  Academy  in  Wake  County,  Clinton  Li- 
brary Society  in  Stokes  County,  New  Hope  Academy 
in  Randolph  County,  Davidson  Academy  in  Montgom- 
ery County,  Hillsboro  Female  Academy  in  Orange 
County,  Mount  Prospect  Academy  in  Edgecombe 
County,  and  Harmony  Grove  Academy  in  Edgecombe 
County. 

In  1825 :  Line  Academy  in  Sampson  County,  Colerain 
Academy  in  Bertie  County,  Williams  Academy  in  Dup- 
lin County,  Oak  Grove  Academy  in  Greene  County, 
Pleasant  Grove  Academy  in  Edgecombe  County,  Lex- 
ington Academy  at  Lexington,  Shady  Grove  Academy 
in  Rockingham  County,  The  Greensboro  Library  Soci- 
ety at  Greensboro,  The  Farmers'  Library  Society  of 
Northampton  County,  and  the  Abbott's  Creek  Library 
Society  in  Davidson  County. 


54      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Similar  new  institutions  continued  to  be  chartered,  or 
the  charters  of  old  academies  were  revised,  from  1825 
until  after  the  middle  of  the  century  or  somewhat  later. 
After  1850  the  academy  movement  began  to  decline,  and 
following  the  war  a  new  type  of  school,  the  public  high 
school,  began  to  take  its  place. 

Several  interesting  features  of  the  academy,  such  as 
the  course  of  study,  material  equipment,  methods  of 
support,  qualifications  and  salaries  of  teachers,  and 
methods  of  teaching,  aj  once  suggest  themselves.  A 
brief  discussion  of  these  features  will  serve  to  show  the 
institution  as  it  actually  operated  in  North  Carolina.1 

The  curricula  or  courses  of  study  offered  in  these 
schools  show  a  wide  range  of  subjects.  Reading,  writing, 
English  grammar,  geography,  mathematics,  and  Latin 
and  Greek  were  taught  in  an  academy  at  Pittsboro  in 
1800;  the  same  subjects  and  bookkeeping  were  given  in 
a  school  at  Hillsboro  in  1801 ;  Latin,  Greek,  geography, 
arithmetic,  natural  and  moral  philosophy,  astronomy, 
and  reading  and  writing  were  taught  in  the  Caswell 
Academy  in  1802;  the  following  year  the  boys  in  the 
Fayetteville  Academy  were  studying  reading,  spelling, 
ciphering,  English  grammar,  Nepos,  Caesar,  Sallust, 
and  Virgil;  and  the  girls  were  taught  spelling,  reading, 
English  grammar,  geography,  letter-writing,  copy- 
writing,  ciphering,  Dresden  work,  tambour  work,  and 
embroidery. 

In  1805  the  Pittsboro  Academy  had  classes  in  history, 
astronomy,  and  moral  philosophy,  and  the  same  year 
the  principal  of  the  school  at  Louisburg,  with  the  aid  of 

1  For  further  interesting  material  on  these  subjects  see  Goon,  North 
Carolina  Schools  and  Academies,  1790-18W,  A  Documentary  History, 
from  which  much  of  the  present  discussion  is  largely  taken. 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  55 

one  assistant,  "advertised  to  teach  belles-lettres,  rheto- 
ric, ethics,  metaphysics,  Hebrew,  French,  Italian,  alge- 
bra, geometry,  trigonometry,  conic  sections,  surveying, 
natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  navigation,  mensura- 
tion, altimetry,  longimetry,  Latin,  and  Greek,  in  addi- 
tion to  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and 
English  grammar." 

The  Salisbury  Academy  in  1807  had  classes  in  Vir- 
gil's Eclogues,  Nepos,  Erasmus,  geography,  reading, 
parsing,  catechism,  arithmetic,  writing,  and  composi- 
tion. Reading,  writing,  and  spelling  were  required 
subjects,  and  Latin,  French,  music,  painting,  and  nee- 
dle-work were  electives,  for  the  girls  in  the  Raleigh  Acad- 
emy in  1811.  The  course  offered  for  the  boys  in  the 
same  school  in  that  year  "possibly  required  more  time 
and  work  to  complete  than  is  now  required  to  complete 
our  elementary  and  high-school  courses.  The  Latin 
course  included  grammar,  Corderii,  Caesar,  Ovid,  Virgil, 
Odes  of  Horace,  and  Cicero.  The  Greek  course  em- 
braced the  grammar  and  Greek  Testament.  In  mathe- 
matics, Euclid,  arithmetic,  and  surveying  were  re- 
quired. In  English,  grammar,  parsing,  and  geography 
were  taught." 

In  1818  the  principal  of  the  Salisbury  Academy  of- 
fered to  "teach  all  the  branches  of  English,  classical, 
mathematical  and  philosophical  literature  which  are 
taught  in  universities,  together  with  the  French  lan- 
guage, if  required."  The  same  year  Miss  Rachel  Prend- 
ergast  advertised  that  the  "following  sciences"  would  be 
taught  at  "A  Female  Seminary"  in  Caswell  County: 
"Orthography,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  English 
grammar,  needlework,  drawing,  painting,  embroidery, 
geography  and  the  use  of  the  maps,  also  scanning  po- 


66      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

etry."  In  1822,  grammar  and  parsing,  belles-lettres, 
geography,  chemistry,  botany,  natural  philosophy, 
astronomy,  Latin,  Greek,  music,  dancing,  drawing,  and 
painting,  as  well  as  the  rudiments  of  learning,  were 
taught  in  the  Oxford  Female  Seminary. 

The  physical  equipment  of  most  of  these  schools  was 
far  from  modern  and  adequate,  though  creditable  build- 
ings were  now  and  then  found.  During  this  period  the 
State  was  very  sparsely  settled,  and  agriculture  was  the 
principal  pursuit  of  the  population.  Urban  communi- 
ties, therefore,  developed  slowly.  As  a  rule  the  school 
buildings  were  of  wood,  though  occasionally  in  the 
larger  towns  a  brick  building  could  be  found.  Black- 
boards were  very  rare  and  modern  school  furniture  was 
also  practically  unknown.  Maps  were  frequently  re- 
ported as  in  use  and  occasionally  a  school  could  be  found 
using  a  globe  and  "some  geometrical  apparatus."  In 
1826,  the  Salem  Boys'  School  had  "received  a  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus  and  mineralogical  cabinet." 
In  1835,  the  Leasburg  Classical  School  was  "furnished 
with  globes,  maps,  pianos,  a  collection  of  geographical 
specimens,  and  a  chemical  apparatus."  Two  years  later 
the  Northampton  Academy  advertised  "  an  entirely  new 
mathematical  and  philosophical  apparatus."  Libraries 
in  the  schools  were  slow  in  developing. 

The  schools  were  supported  by  tuition  charges  based, 
usually,  on  the  age  of  the  pupils  or  the  subjects  taught. 
The  salaries  of  the  teachers  also  varied.  Franklin  Acad- 
emy, at  Louisburg,  illustrates  both  the  tuition  charged 
the  pupils  and  the  salary  paid  the  teacher.  In  1805  the 
trustees  of  that  institution  advertised  that 

each  student  shall  pay  to  the  treasurer  of  the  academy  ten 
dollars  per  annum,  for  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  arithme- 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  57 

tic,  English  grammar,  geography,  belles  lettres,  and  rhetoric; 
and  sixteen  dollars  for  instruction  in  ethics  and  metaphysics, 
the  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  French  and  Italian  languages,  and 
the  higher  branches  of  metaphysics  and  philosophy,  viz.  alge- 
bra, geometry,  trigonometry,  conic  sections,  altimetry,  longim- 
etry,  mensuration  of  superficies  and  solids,  surveying,  naviga- 
tion, natural  philosophy,  and  astronomy. 

According  to  a  diary  of  the  time,  Matthew  Dickinson, 
a  Yale  man,  who  became  principal  of  the  school  in  1805, 
was  taken  care  of  and  prospered  on  his  salary  and  a 
judicious  management  of  his  income:  — 

Mr.  D.  has  acquired  a  very  decent  little  estate  since  he  first 
came  here  4  years  ago.  He  thinks  himself  worth  between  six 
and  seven  thousand  dollars.  The  first  year  he  had  about  seven 
hundred  dollars  —  the  next,  the  avails  of  his  school  1000 
Dlls.  —  the  next  they  amounted  to  1500  and  the  last  year  to 
1200.  Besides  this  too  he  pays  an  Usher  (Mayhew  from  Wms. 
Col.)  300  Dlls.  But  he  has  improved  opportunities  to  speculate 
by  lending  say  600  Dlls.  cash  to  a  young  Sportsman  and  taking 
a  Bond  for  1000.  Till  lately  he  owned  a  house  and  farm  of 
more  than  three  hundred  acres,  six  slaves,  and  a  quantity  of 
stock,  as  horses,  sheep  and  cattle.  Lately  he  sold  his  land  for 
4000  Dlls.  which  was  one  thousand  more  than  it  cost  him.  He 
now  keeps  a  Gig,  two  horses  and  a  servant  or  two  and  designs 
in  the  spring  to  visit  Conn,  in  this  style.  Dickinson  says  liter- 
ature is  much  respected  in  these  parts  and  literary  men  rever- 
enced. The  first  year  he  came  when  he  had  no  property  and 
nothing  to  recommend  him  but  his  books  and  education,  he 
received  flattering  testimonials  of  respect  and  was  treated  with 
equal  civility  as  at  present.1 

This  remuneration  was  perhaps  somewhat  higher  than 
many  of  the  teachers  received,  however.  David  Ker  re- 
ceived four  hundred  dollars  for  teaching  and  an  addi- 
tional four  hundred  dollars  for  preaching  while  he  was 
principal  of  the  Fayetteville  Academy,  in  1794.     In 

1  Coon,  op.  cil.,  pp.  84,  89,  90. 


58      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

1826,  a  principal  was  sought  for  the  Raleigh  Academy  to 
succeed  the  Reverend  Doctor  McPheeters,  who  was 
retiring  after  sixteen  years'  service.  The  salary  offered 
was  eight  hundred  dollars  and  a  house  and  garden  rent 
free.  In  the  same  year,  Miss  Mariah  Allen  received  a 
salary  of  five  hundred  dollars  as  principal  of  a  female 
academy  at  Lincolnton.1 

The  teachers  in  these  academies  and  schools  were  in 
the  main  well  trained  and  ably  equipped,  though  few,  if 
any,  had  received  professional  training  for  teaching. 
The  influence  of  the  graduates  of  the  state  university 
is  early  seen  in  the  schools.  The  first  graduating  class 
of  that  institution  in  1798  numbered  seven,  and  as 
early  as  1801  Andrew  Flinn,  an  A.B.  graduate  of  the 
college,  became  principal  of  the  Hillsboro  Academy; 
many  other  graduates  had  charge  of  schools  and  acade- 
mies in  the  State  throughout  the  period  under  discus- 
sion. The  influence  of  Presbyterian  ministers  and 
Princeton  graduates  was  also  more  or  less  extensive. 
There  were  also  graduates  of  several  other  Northern 
and  Eastern  colleges  and  of  European  institutions  en- 
gaged in  teaching  in  these  schools  during  the  early 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century.2 

Advanced  methods  of  teaching  were  not  generally 
practiced  in  these  institutions,  though  the  few  glimpses 
which  we  get  of  their  conduct  occasionally  indicate 
more  or  less  creditable  and  thorough  teaching  with  em- 
phasis now  on  one  thing  and  now  on  another.  In  the 
Salisbury  Academy  in  1807  particular  attention  was 
"paid  to  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  English 
language,  to  reading  and  spelling  it  correctly,  and  to 
writing  a  fair  hand."  In  1810  in  a  school  in  Warrenton, 
1  Coon,  op.  cii.,  pp.  483,  206.  2  Ibid.,  Introduction. 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  59 

kept  by  Jacob  Mordecai  with  the  assistance  of  his  son 
and  daughters,  "the  beauties  of  such  authors  as  Addison 
and  Pope  are  unfolded  to  the  pupils  in  so  interesting  and 
engaging  a  manner  that  the  taste  is  generally  chastened 
and  refined  to  the  standard  of  classic  purity.  The  mind 
is  elevated  superior  to  the  enjoyment  of  silly  novels, 
which  but  too  often  deprave  the  taste,  corrupt  the  heart, 
and  enfeeble  the  understanding."  The  students  here 
were  also  taught  both  to  read  and  compose  music.  In 
many  of  the  schools  memorizing  the  rules  of  English 
grammar  and  of  arithmetic  seems  to  have  been  a  popular 
method  of  teaching  these  subjects.  Some  girls  in  a  fe- 
male academy  at  Charlotte  "who  began  to  memorize 
grammar  since  the  commencement  of  the  session,  parsed 
blank  verse  with  uncommon  ease  and  propriety"  in  an 
examination  in  1822.  Classes  in  the  schools  at  Lincoln- 
ton  in  1827  were  examined  on  "memorizing  English 
grammar"  and  on  "reciting  the  rules  of  arithmetic." 
Considerable  attention  seems  to  have  been  given  to 
Latin  and  Greek  prosody,  and  scanning  English  poetry 
was  considered  helpful  to  the  students.  So  prevalent 
was  the  practice  of  emphasizing  syntax  and  etymology 
in  a  study  of  the  classics  that  Judge  Archibald  D.  Mur- 
phey,  celebrated  in  the  educational  history  of  the  State 
for  his  efforts  to  promote  popular  education,  severely 
criticized  the  custom  in  1827.  Geography  seems  to  have 
been  taught  largely  by  memorizing  names  of  places: 
"questions  were  asked  rapidly,  passing  from  one  section 
of  the  globe  to  the  other,"  is  the  description  of  an  exami- 
nation in  one  school. 

References  to  the  early  use  of  blackboards  are  very 
few  in  the  documents  dealing  with  these  schools.  In 
1835,  however,  "a  visitor  admired  the  facility  with 


60      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

which  ten-  and  twelve-year-old  boys  solved  problems  in 
interest  and  the  rule  of  three  on  the  blackboard"  in  the 
Raleigh  Academy.  Another  reference  is  in  a  criticism  of 
a  teacher  in  a  school  for  girls  at  Asheboro  in  1839  for  not 
using  "the  blackboard  in  teaching  arithmetic.  If  a  small 
school  like  Asheboro  had  blackboards  in  1839,  it  is  more 
than  likely  that  blackboards  were  in  common  use  in  the 
schools  of  this  State  before  1840."  l  In  spite  of  this 
criticism,  however,  it  appears  that  the  teacher,  a  Miss 
Rea,  from  Boston,  was  a  successful  instructor.  Her 
methods  are  interesting.  Her  pupils  were 

taught  the  four  principal  divisions  in  arithmetic  orally  before 
they  make  use  of  a  slate.  ...  I  understand  that  great  pains  is 
taken  by  the  tutoress  to  make  the  pupils  understand  the  prin- 
ciples and  reasons  of  their  operations.  They  are  not  permitted 
to  pore  over  a  question  they  can't  understand,  for  an  hour  or 
two  together  .  .  .  she  is  equally  careful  that  they  thoroughly 
understand  everything  they  pass  over.  She  is  not  content  that 
a  pupil  can  answer  a  question  in  the  identical  words  of  the  book: 
by  oral  illustration  and  conversation  she  satisfies  herself  that 
the  pupil  understands  the  principles  correctly.2 

A  few  schools  had  features  of  the  Lancaster  system  of 
instruction.  The  first  Lancaster  school  established  in  the 
State  was  at  Fayetteville  in  1814,  and  the  same  year 
another  was  begun  in  Wake  County  to  which  children 
unable  to  pay  for  the  instruction  were  admitted  free  of 
charge.  In  February  of  the  following  year  a  Lancaster 
school  was  opened  in  Raleigh  where  poor  children  were 
taught  free  of  tuition  charges.  By  November  the  en- 
rollment was  more  than  one  hundred  pupils.  Many  of 
these  who,  before  entering  the  school,  "did  not  know  a 
letter  in  the  book,"  were  in  a  short  time  able  to  "read, 
write,  have  some  knowledge  of  figures,  and  can  repeat  by 
1  Coon,  op.  cit..  Introduction.  *  Ibid.,  pp.  339,  340. 


THE  ACADEMY  MOVEMENT  61 

heart  a  number  of  moral  verses.  Some,  indeed,  have  ob- 
tained a  considerable  knowledge  of  English  grammar 
and  geography."  In  1822  there  was  a  Lancaster  school 
near  Charlotte,  which  was  also  training  teachers  on  this 
system  of  teaching,  and  one  in  Iredell  County.  The 
Newbern  Academy  seems  to  have  had  a  department 
conducted  on  this  system  of  education  in  1822. l 


REFERENCES 

Brown,  E.  E.,  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools;  Dexter, 
History  of  Education  in  the  United  States;  Brown,  J.  F.,  The 
American  High  School;  Coon,  North  Carolina  Schools  and  Acad- 
emies, 1790-18 W>  A  Documentary  History;  Cyclopedia  of  Edu- 
cation, edited  by  Paul  Monroe,  vol.  I,  article,  "Academies"; 
Weeks,  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the 
Common  Schools  of  North  Carolina;  Raper,  The  Church  and 
Private  Schools  in  North  Carolina;  Smith,  History  of  Education 
in  North  Carolina. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  conditions  gave  rise  to  the  academy  in  England? 
St.  What  influence  did  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  as  renewed  in 
1662,  have  on  the  development  of  education  in  England? 

3.  What  conditions  gave  rise  to  the  academy  in  the  United 
States? 

4.  How  did  the  early  American  academy  resemble  the  acad- 
emy which  developed  in  England  in  the  seventeenth 
century? 

5.  How  did  the  early  American  academy  resemble  the  Latin 
Grammar  School  of  colonial  days? 

6.  In  what  respects  was  it  similar  to  our  modern  public  high 
school? 

7.  Why  is  the  American  public  high  school  frequently 
spoken  of  as  the  "people's  college"? 

1  Coon,  op.  cit.t  Introduction. 


K      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

8.  How  does  the  American  high  school  reflect  American 
character? 

9.  Make  a  study  of  any  academies  established  in  your 
county,  noting  their  management,  equipment,  curricu- 
lum, qualifications  of  their  teachers,  and  methods  of 
teaching,  and  compare  these  features  with  similar  fea- 
tures of  any  high  schools  in  your  county  at  the  present 
time. 

10.  How  late  did  academies  flourish  in  your  county?  What 
caused  their  decline?  In  what  instances  were  they 
absorbed  by  public  high  schools? 

11.  How  do  the  courses  of  study  offered  in  many  of  the  acad- 
emies in  North  Carolina  (see  pages  54-56)  compare  with 
the  curriculum  of  the  high  schools  of  your  county  to-day? 

12.  Is  there  any  evidence  that  the  so-called  modern  subjects, 
such  as  domestic  science  and  domestic  art,  manual  train- 
ing, and  other  practical  subjects,  were  being  taught  in 
academies  in  North  Carolina  before  the  Civil  War? 

13.  How  sound  do  you  consider  the  methods  of  teaching  in 
use  in  the  girls'  school  at  Asheboro  in  1839,  described  on 
page  60? 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  EARLY  AGITATION  (1776-1825) 

North  Carolina  was  not  only  the  first  of  the  States 
adopting  secession  to  work  out  prior  to  the  war  a  credit- 
able system  of  primary  schools,  but  it  developed  the 
best  system  to  be  found  in  the  entire  South  in  1860. 
This  educational  achievement  was  early  recognized. 
Just  before  the  war  Superintendent  Calvin  H.  Wiley 
said  in  commenting  on  the  success  and  influence  of  the 
schools :  — 

The  educational  system  of  North  Carolina  is  now  attracting 
the  favorable  attention  of  the  States  south,  west,  and  north  of 
us.  .  .  .  All  modern  statistical  publications  give  us  a  rank  far 
in  advance  of  the  position  which  we  occupied  in  such  works  a 
few  years  ago;  and  without  referring  to  numerous  other  facts 
equally  significant,  our  moral  influence  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  fact  that  the  superintendent  of  common  schools  was  press- 
ingly  invited  to  visit,  free  of  expense,  the  legislature  of  the 
most  powerful  State  south  of  us  [Georgia],  to  aid  in  preparing 
a  system  of  public  instruction  similar  to  ours.  He  receives 
constant  inquiries  from  abroad  in  regard  to  our  plan;  and  be- 
yond all  doubt  our  schools,  including  those  of  all  grades,  are 
now  the  greatest  temporal  interest  of  the  State.  .  .  .  North 
Carolina  has  the  start  of  all  her  Southern  sisters  in  educational 
matters.  ...  If ,  then,  she  is  true  to  herself,  and  justly  compre- 
hends the  plain  logic  of  the  facts  of  her  situation,  she  will  now 
.  .  .  prudently  and  courageously  advance  in  the  direction 
which  leads  alike  to  safety,  to  peace,  and  to  prosperity.  .  .  . 
Such  action  is  not  merely  important  as  likely  to  lead  to  future 
greatness;  it  is  also  a  defensive  and  imperative  necessity  of  the 
present.  If  the  Union  remains,  no  one  will  deny  the  impor- 
tance, to  our  peace  as  well  as  honor,  of  having  a  strong  and 


64   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

prosperous  State,  able  to  command  the  respect  of  her  confed- 
erates; if  the  Union  is  dissolved,  then  North  Carolina  is  our 
only  country  for  the  present,  and  our  present  security  and 
future  hopes  will  depend  on  her  power  to  stand  alone  or  honor- 
ably to  compete  with  rivals  in  a  new  confederacy. 

Later  it  was  said  of  North  Carolina's  ante-bellum  edu- 
cational success:  — 

As  it  was,  during  the  half-century  under  consideration  — 
1790-1840  —  this  State  did  make  an  educational  record,  if  not 
in  some  respects  so  brilliant  as  Virginia,  yet  beyond  the  Old 
Dominion,  more  decided  at  first,  more  steady  in  the  upbuild- 
ing of  secondary  education,  and,  at  the  close,  1835-1840,  was 
able  to  place  oh  the  ground,  beyond  dispute,  the  best  system 
of  public  instruction  in  the  fourteen  Southern  States  east  of 
the  Mississippi  previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.1 

The  development  of  the  ideal  of  public  education  in 
the  State  was  slow,  though  it  began  early  and  grew 
steadily.  The  first  significant  step  in  the  growth  of  this 
ideal  was  the  adoption  in  1776  of  a  constitutional  provi- 
sion for  legislative  establishment  of  schools  and  for  a 
university.  This  provision  of  the  constitution,  which 
was  adopted  in  December  of  that  year  and  which  was 
practically  a  literal  copy  of  a  section  of  the  constitution 
of  Pennsylvania,  adopted  three  months  earlier,  was:  — 

That  a  school  or  schools  shall  be  established  by  the  Legisla- 
ture for  the  convenient  instruction  of  youth,  with  such  salaries 
to  the  masters,  paid  by  the  public,  as  may  enable  them  to  in- 
struct at  low  prices;  and  all  useful  learning  shall  be  duly  en- 
couraged and  promoted  in  one  or  more  universities. 

This  provision  was  continued  in  the  revised  consti- 
tution of  1835. 

The  university  was  chartered  in  1789  and  organized 

1  Report  of  the  United  Stales  Commissioner  of  Education,  1895-96, 
p.  282. 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  65 

six  years  later,  graduating  its  first  class  in  1798.  With 
this  exception,  however,  no  legislation  was  enacted  for 
public  education  until  1825  when  an  act  was  passed 
creating  a  literary  fund.  And  with  the  exception  of  this 
action  it  was  nearly  fifty  years  from  the  organization  of 
the  university  to  the  passage  of  the  first  public-school 
law  of  the  State,  in  January,  1839. 

There  were  many  conditions  which  prevented  an 
earlier  obedience  to  the  educational  mandate  of  the 
constitution.  Leaders  in  the  State  believed  in  the  civil- 
izing influences  of  schools  and  colleges  and  embodied 
that  conviction  in  as  substantial  and  effective  activity 
as  conditions  would  allow.  But  the  terms  of  the  consti- 
tution itself  were  more  or  less  uncertain  and  variously 
interpreted  by  those  who  really  had  an  earnest  interest 
in  promoting  the  cause  of  public  schools.  To  some  the 
constitutional  provision  meant  that  the  Legislature 
should  establish  public  free  schools  and  provide  for  their 
maintenance  by  state  taxation,  while  others  believed 
that  it  was  intended  to  give  authority  for  legislative  aid 
to  private  schools  and  academies.  This  latter  interpreta- 
tion was  so  general  that  frequent  petitions  were  pre- 
sented to  the  Assembly  for  aid  of  such  schools,  but  they 
were  invariably  refused;  and  in  1803  a  bill  for  establish- 
ing an  academy  in  each  district,  to  be  maintained  by  the 
public,  was  also  defeated.  Another  condition  which 
hindered  legislative  action  was  the  fear  of  taxation,  in- 
herited perhaps  from  colonial  days.  Taxation,  it  was 
argued,  was  designed  in  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment to  defray  its  legitimate  and  necessary  expenses, 
and  the  less  the  tax,  the  more  ideal  the  government. 
Such  a  theory  naturally  stifled  the  proper  conception  of 
education  in  a  democracy.    Moreover,  the  intrusion  of 


66      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  State  into  the  parental  obligation  was  considered  by 
some  as  dangerous  and  agrarian.  To  others,  the  element 
of  charity  read  into  a  public-school  system  seemed  hu- 
miliating —  an  attitude  which  cooled  local  pride  and 
community  patriotism.  Besides,  lack  of  communication 
between  the  eastern  and  the  western  counties  produced 
sectional  jealousies  which  unhappily  prevented  the  de- 
velopment of  a  common  educational  interest.  The  entire 
absence  of  proper  qualifications  and  a  resulting  lack  of 
professional  spirit  among  the  teachers  of  the  State  also 
delayed  the  beginnings  of  a  movement  for  popular  edu- 
cation. Compared  with  many  other  pursuits,  teaching 
was  popularly  considered  contemptible.1 

Agitation  of  a  movement  to  establish  a  common- 
school  system,  however,  began  early  after  the  opening  of 
the  national  period.  Many  public-spirited  men  looked  be- 
yond the  narrownesses,  delusions,  and  jealousies  which 
prevailed  in  the  State  and  considered  the  larger  interests 
of  the  whole  people.  Lack  of  educational  facilities  for 
the  masses  made  a  keen  appeal  to  such  leaders,  who  be- 
lieved that  legislative  action  should  be  sought  to  im- 
prove the  pathetic  condition.  As  early  as  1802  Governor 
Williams  recommended  to  the  Legislature  a  provision, 
"through  adequate  and  suitable  means,  for  a  general 
diffusion  of  learning  and  science  throughout  the  State  " 
so  that  the  people  could  duly  "appreciate  and  properly 
understand  and  defend,  their  natural,  civil,  and  political 
rights."  In  1803  Governor  Turner  urged  "the  establish- 
ment of  schools  in  every  part  of  the  State.  Education 
is  the  mortal  enemy  to  arbitrary  governments,  and  the 
surest  basis  of  liberty  and  equal  right."  The  following 

*  Coon,  Public  Education  in  North  Carolina,  1790-18 W,  A  Docu- 
mentary History,  vol.  I,  p.  560. 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  67 

year  he  desired  to  see  "a  plan  of  education  introduced, 
which  will  extend  itself  to  every  corner  of  the  State,"  to 
be  maintained  by  public  taxation,  which  "every  citizen 
will  be  willing  and  desirous  to  contribute  toward  an  ex- 
pense so  well  applied."  In  1805  he  again  urged  a  general 
and  effective  legislative  plan  of  educational  action. 
Schools  and  the  means  of  education  were  sorely  needed 
and  they  could  not  prosper  if  left  to  individual  effort, 
he  argued. 

Governor  Alexander  likewise,  in  his  message  in  1806 
and  again  in  1807,  made  similar  recommendations, 
which  were  urged  by  Governor  Williams  in  1808  and  by 
Governor  Stone  in  1809  and  in  1810.  Governor  Stone's 
enumeration  of  some  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the 
establishment  of  a  judicious  plan  of  education  in  the 
State  is  interesting.  Among  other  advantages  such  a 
plan  would  "relieve  parents  from  much  of  the  anxiety 
and  uneasiness  of  distant  separation  from  their  chil- 
dren," and  would  "save  a  considerable  amount  of  our 
circulating  medium  among  strangers."  Moreover,  it 
would 

prevent  the  impression  upon  the  minds  of  our  youth,  of  unrea- 
sonable predilections  in  favor  of  alien  institutions  and  man- 
ners, as  well  as  of  prejudices  against  those  of  our  own  State, 
and  against  the  condition  of  society,  of  which  their  interest 
and  duty  require  them  to  become  members.  .  .  .  Attach  the 
respect,  gratitude,  and  reverence  of  our  own  youth  to  persons 
and  places  within  our  own  limits,  as  being  their  guides  to 
science  and  virtue.  .  .  . 

He  advocated  the  education  of  both  boys  and  girls :  — 

I  trust  we  shall  never  consider  our  task  as  finished,  until 
preparation  shall  be  made,  and  opportunity  afforded  for  the 
most  obscure  members  of  society  to  procure  such  a  portion  of 


68   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

instruction  for  their  offspring,  as  shall  enable  them  satisfac- 
torily to  discharge  the  most  important  duties  of  society. 

Governor  Benjamin  Smith,  in  his  message  in  1811, 
said:  — 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  the  all-important 
subject  of  education.  In  despotic  governments,  where  the 
supreme  power  is  in  possession  of  a  tyrant  or  divided  among 
an  hereditary  aristocracy  (generally  corrupt  and  wicked),  the 
ignorance  of  the  people  is  a  security  to  their  rulers; 1  but  in  a 
free  government,  where  the  offices  and  honors  of  the  State  are 
open  to  all,  the  superiority  of  their  political  privileges  should 
be  infused  into  every  citizen  from  their  earliest  infancy,  so  as 
to  produce  an  enthusiastic  attachment  to  their  own  country, 
and  insure  a  jealous  support  of  their  own  constitution,  laws, 
and  government.  A  certain  degree  of  education  should  be 
placed  within  the  reach  of  every  child  of  the  State;  and  I  am 
persuaded  a  plan  may  be  formed  upon  economical  principles 
that  would  extend  this  down  to  the  poor  of  every  neighbor- 
hood, at  an  expense  trifling  beyond  expectation,  when  compared 
with  the  incalculable  benefits  from  such  a  philanthropic  and 
politic  system.  .  .  . 

Governor  William  Hawkins  in  1812  and  Governor 
Miller  in  1815  recommended  legislative  establishment 
of  schools.  "  It  is  under  the  hand  of  legislative  patronage 
alone  that  the  temple  of  science  can  be  thrown  open  to 
all,"  declared  Governor  Miller.  However,  beyond  refer- 

1  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  recall  the  type  of  argument 
advanced  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  against  governmental  aid 
to  education  in  England:  "In  a  free  nation  where  slaves  are  not  al- 
lowed of,  the  surest  wealth  consists  in  a  multitude  of  laborious  poor; 
for  besides  that  they  are  the  never-failing  nursery  of  fleets  and  armies, 
without  them  there  could  be  no  enjoyment,  and  no  product  of  any 
country  would  be  valuable.  To  make  the  society  happy  and  people 
easy  under  the  meanest  circumstances,  it  is  requisite  that  great  num- 
bers should  be  ignorant  as  well  as  poor.  Knowledge  both  enlarges  and 
multiplies  our  desires,  and  the  fewer  things  man  wishes  for,  the  more 
easily  his  necessity  may  be  supplied."  (See  Adams,  History  of  the  Ele- 
mentary School  Contest  in  England,  p.  46.) 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  69 

ring  the  recommendation  to  a  joint  committee  of  both 
houses,  the  first  Committee  on  Education  appointed  in 
the  Legislature,  no  action  was  taken  by  the  Assembly. 
The  following  year  Governor  Miller  again  called  atten- 
tion to  the  same  subject  and  urged  the  adoption  of  some 
plan  by  which  educational  facilities  could  be  afforded 
to  all  the  youth  of  the  State.  At  the  same  time  he  pro- 
posed the  establishment  of  a  fund  for  school  support: 
"The  example  set  in  a  neighboring  State,  in  establishing 
funds  for  the  advancement  of  literature  and  internal 
improvements,  seems  well  worthy  of  imitation." * 

That  part  of  the  message  which  related  to  education 
was  referred  to  a  committee  of  which  Archibald  D.  Mur- 
phey,  Senator  from  Orange  County,  whose  work  in  pro- 
moting public  education  in  the  State  won  for  him  the 
name  of  "father  of  the  common  schools,'*  was  made 
chairman.  The  result  was  an  interesting  report,  written 
by  Murphey,  in  which  the  democratic  theory  of  popu- 
lar education  was  thoroughly  elaborated.  The  report 
pointed  out  that  the  education  of  the  youth  of  the  State 
was  then  left  to  chance,  and  that  thousands  of  children 
were  growing  up  in  ignorance.  The  strength  of  the  State 
resided  in  its  people,  who  should  be  educated  at  public 
expense  without  distinction  of  class.  The  Legislature, 
the  report  continued,  was  then  able  to  appropriate  half 
a  million  dollars  for  maintaining  a  general  system  of 
public  instruction.  In  concluding,  Murphey  recom- 
mended the  appointment  of  a  legislative  committee  of 
three  to  digest  a  system  of  education  based  on  the 
general  principles  of  the  report,  to  be  submitted  at  the 
next  session. 

Two  reports  were  presented  at  this  session:  one, 

1  Virginia  established  a  literary  fund  in  1810. 


70      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

dated  December  6,  1817,  and  presented  December  8, 
was  signed  by  John  M.  Walker,  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee, who  had  been  "unable  to  communicate  with 
the  other  members";  and  another,  dated  November  27, 
1817,  and  presented  two  days  later,  was  signed  by  Mur- 
phey.  Walker's  report  recommended  that  provision  be 
made  for  training  a  sufficient  number  of  teachers  to 
reduce  by  competition  charges  of  tuition  so  that  educa- 
tion could  be  put  within  reach  of  all  the  children  of  the 
State.  The  education  of  the  poor,  the  report  declared, 
was  of  first  importance. 

The  elaborate  report  by  Murphey  was  more  signifi- 
cant, however,  in  that  it  marked  the  dawn  of  a  new  edu^ 
cational  era  in  North  Carolina,  and  became  the  basis  of 
the  system  of  public  instruction  finally  established  in 
1839.  The  report  was  presented  after  a  careful  study  of 
the  best  systems  of  education  in  this  country  and  in  Eu- 
rope and  embodied  the  best  of  the  practicable  features 
revealed  by  the  investigation.  It  outlined  a  general  plan 
of  public  instruction  which  included,  a  literary  fund. 
Provision  was  also  made  for  a  state  board  of  education 
to  manage  the  fund  and  to  superintend  the  school  sys- 
tem; for  the  state  university,  for  academies,  and  primary 
schools,  and  their  organization  and  course  of  study; 
and  provision  for  the  education  of  the  poor  and  for  an 
asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb.  The  primary  schools 
were  considered  of  first  importance  in  the  plan,  and  one 
or  more  of  these  was  to  be  established  in  each  township. 
Since  it  is  this  degree  of  education  which  is  of  most  in- 
terest here,  that  part  of  the  plan  may  be  given  in 
full:  — 

That  each  county  in  this  State  be  divided  into  two  or  more 
townships;  and  that  one  or  more  primary  schools  be  estab- 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  71 

lished  in  each  township,  provided  a  lot  of  ground  not  less  than 
four  acres  and  a  sufficient  house  erected  thereon,  be  provided 
and  vested  in  the  board  of  public  instruction.  And  that  every 
incorporated  town  in  the  State,  containing  more  than  one  hun- 
dred families,  shall  be  divided  into  wards.  Such  town  contain- 
ing less  than  one  hundred  families  shall  be  considered  as  form- 
ing only  one  ward.  Each  ward,  upon  conveying  to  the  board 
of  public  instruction  a  lot  of  ground  of  the  value  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars,  shall  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  and  privi- 
leges of  a  primary  school. 

The  court  of  pleas  and  quarter  sessions  shall  annually  elect 
for  each  township,  in  their  respective  counties,  five  persons  as 
trustees  of  the  primary  schools  to  be  established  in  such 
county,  who  shall  have  power  to  fix  the  sites  of  the  primary 
schools  to  be  established  thereon,  superintend  and  manage  the 
same,  make  rules  for  their  government,  appoint  trustees,  ap- 
point teachers,  and  remove  them  at  pleasure.  They  shall  se- 
lect such  children  residing  in  their  township,  whose  parents 
are  unable  to  pay  for  their  schooling,  who  shall  be  taught  at 
the  said  schools  for  three  years  without  charge.  They  shall 
report  to  the  board  of  public  instruction,  the  rules  which  they 
may  adopt  for  the  government  of  said  schools,  and  shall  an- 
nually report  to  the  said  board  the  state  of  the  schools,  the 
number  and  conduct  of  the  pupils  educated  at  the  public  ex- 
pense, such  books,  stationery,  and  other  implements  for 
learning  as  may  be  necessary. 

The  teacher  of  each  primary  school  shall  receive  a  salary  of 
one  hundred  dollars,  to  be  paid  out  of  the  fund  for  public 
instruction. 

This  plan  for  establishing  primary  schools  is  simple,  and  can 
easily  be  carried  into  execution.  It  divides  the  expenses  of 
these  schools  between  the  public  and  those  individuals  for 
whose  immediate  benefit  they  are  established;  it  secures  a 
regular  stipend  to  the  teachers,  and  yet  holds  out  inducements 
to  them  to  be  active  and  faithful  in  their  calling;  and  it  enables 
every  neighborhood,  whether  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  be 
few  or  many,  to  have  a  primary  school,  at  the  cheap  price  of  a 
small  lot  of  ground,  and  a  house  erected  thereon,  sufficient  for 
the  purpose  of  the  school.  Were  these  schools  in  full  opera- 
tion in  every  section  of  the  State,  even  in  the  present  state  of 


72      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

our  population,  more  than  fifteen  thousand  children  would 
annually  be  taught  in  them.  These  schools  would  be  to  the 
rich  a  convenience,  and  to  the  poor,  a  blessing. 

The  plan  provided  for  the  following  course  of  study  in 
the  primary  schools :  — 

In  the  primary  schools  should  be  taught  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic.  A  judicious  selection  of  books  should  from 
time  to  time  be  made  by  the  board  of  public  instruction  for 
the  use  of  small  children;  books  which  shall  excite  their  curi- 
osity and  improve  their  moral  dispositions.  And  the  board 
should  be  empowered  to  compile  and  have  printed,  for  the  use 
of  primary  schools,  such  books  as  they  may  think  will  best  sub- 
serve the  purposes  of  intellectual  and  moral  instruction.  In 
these  books  should  be  contained  many  of  the  historical  parts 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  that  children  may  early  be 
made  acquainted  with  the  books  which  contain  the  word  of 
truth,  and  the  doctrines  of  eternal  life. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  method  of  teaching  which 
was  also  recommended  :  — 

The  great  object  of  education  is  intellectual  and  moral  im- 
provement; and  that  mode  of  instruction  is  to  be  preferred 
which  best  serves  to  effect  this  object.  That  mode  is  to  be 
found  only  in  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  human  mind,  its 
habits,  passions,  and  manner  of  operation.  The  philosophy  of 
the  mind,  which  in  ages  preceding  has  been  cultivated  only  in 
its  detached  branches  has  of  late  years  received  form  and  sys- 
tem in  the  schools  of  Scotland.  This  new  science  promises  the 
happiest  results.  It  has  sapped  the  foundation  of  skepticism 
by  establishing  the  authority  of  those  primitive  truths  and  in- 
tuitive principles  which  form  the  basis  of  all  demonstration;  it 
has  taught  to  man  the  extent  of  his  intellectual  powers,  and 
marking  the  line  which  separates  truth  from  hypothetical 
conjecture,  has  pointed  out  to  his  view  the  boundaries  which 
Providence  has  prescribed  to  inquiries.  It  has  determined  the 
laws  of  the  various  faculties  of  the  mind,  and  furnished  a  sys- 
tem of  philosophic  logic  for  conducting  our  inquiries  in  every 
branch  of  knowledge. 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  73 

This  new  science  has  given  birth  to  new  methods  of  instruc- 
tion; methods  which,  being  founded  upon  a  correct  knowledge 
of  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  have  eminently  facilitated  their 
development.  Pestalozzi,  of  Switzerland,  and  Joseph  Lancas- 
ter, of  England,  seem  to  have  been  most  successful  in  the  appli- 
cation of  new  methods  to  the  instruction  of  the  children.  Their 
methods  are  different,  but  each  is  founded  upon  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  human  mind.  The  basis  of  each  method  is, 
the  excitement  of  the  curiosity  of  children;  thereby  awakening 
their  minds  and  preparing  them  to  receive  instruction.  The 
success  which  has  attended  the  application  of  their  methods, 
particularly  that  of  Lancaster,  has  been  astonishing.  Although 
but  very  few  years  have  elapsed  since  Lancastrian  [sic]  schools 
were  first  established,  they  have  spread  over  the  British  Em- 
pire, extended  into  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  Island  of  St. 
Domingo,  and  the  United  States.  Various  improvements  in 
the  details  of  his  plan  have  been  suggested  by  experience  and 
adopted;  and  it  is  probable  that  in  time,  his  will  become  the 
universal  mode  of  instruction  for  children.  The  Lancastrian 
[sic]  plan  is  equally  distinguished  by  its  simplicity,  its  facility 
of  application,  the  rapid  intellectual  improvement  which  it 
gives,  and  the  exact  discipline  which  it  enforces.  The  moral 
effects  of  the  plan  are  also  astonishing;  exact  and  correct 
habits  are  the  surest  safeguards  of  morals;  and  it  has  often 
been  remarked,  that  out  of  the  immense  number  of  children 
and  grown  persons  instructed  in  Lancaster's  schools,  few,  very 
few  have  ever  been  prosecuted  in  a  court  of  justice  for  any 
offense.  Your  committee  do,  therefore,  recommend  that, 
whenever  it  be  practicable,  the  Lancastrian  [sic]  mode  of  in- 
struction may  be  successfully  introduced  into  the  primary 
schools.  The  general  principles  of  this  method  may  be  suc- 
cessfully introduced  into  the  academies  and  university;  and 
your  committee  indulge  the  hope  that  the  board  of  public 
instruction,  and  the  professors  and  teachers  in  these  respective 
institutions,  will  use  their  best  endeavors  to  adopt  and  enforce 
the  best  methods  of  instruction  which  the  present  state  of 
knowledge  will  enable  them  to  devise. 

The  plan  which  the  report  recommended  for  the  edu- 
cation of  poor  children  is  also  of  interest:  — 


74      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

One  of  the  strongest  reasons  which  we  can  have  for  estab- 
lishing a  general  plan  of  public  instruction,  is  the  condition  of 
the  poor  children  of  our  country.  Such  has  always  been  and 
probably  always  will  be  the  allotment  of  human  life,  that  the 
poor  will  form  a  large  portion  of  every  community;  and  it  is 
the  duty  of  those  who  manage  the  affairs  of  a  State  to  extend 
relief  to  this  unfortunate  part  of  our  species  in  every  way  in 
their  power. 

Providence,  in  the  impartial  distribution  of  its  favors, 
whilst  it  has  denied  to  the  poor  many  of  the  comforts  of  life, 
has  generally  bestowed  upon  them  the  blessing  of  intelligent 
children.  Poverty  is  the  school  of  genius;  it  is  a  school  in  which 
the  active  powers  of  man  are  developed  and  disciplined,  and  in 
which  that  moral  courage  has  acquired,  which  enables  him  to 
toil  with  difficulties,  privations,  and  want.  From  this  school 
generally  come  forth  those  men  who  act  the  principal  parts 
upon  the  theater  of  life;  men  who  impress  a  character  upon  the 
age  in  which  forms  grow  up  in  it.  The  State  should  take  this 
school  under  her  special  care,  and  nurturing  the  genius  which 
there  grows  in  rich  luxuriance,  give  to  it  an  honorable  and 
profitable  direction.  Poor  children  are  the  j>eculiar  property 
of  the  State,  and  by  proper  cultivation  they  will  constitute  a 
fund  of  intellectual  and  moral  worth  which  will  greatly  sub- 
serve the  public  interest.  Your  committee  have  therefore  en- 
deavored to  provide  for  the  education  of  all  poor  children  in 
the  primary  schools;  they  have  also  provided  for  the  advance- 
ment into  the  academies  and  university  of  such  of  those  chil- 
dren cs  are  most  distinguished  for  genius  and  give  the  best 
assurance  of  future  usefulness.  For  three  years  they  are  to  be 
educated  in  the  primary  schools  free  of  charge;  the  portion  of 
them  who  shall  be  selected  for  further  advancement  shall, 
during  the  whole  course  of  their  future  education,  be  clothed, 
fed,  and  taught  at  the  public  expense.  The  number  of  children 
who  are  to  be  thus  advanced,  will  depend  upon  the  state  of  the 
fund  set  apart  for  public  instruction,  and  your  committee 
think  it  will  be  most  advisable  to  leave  the  number  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  board,  who  shall  have  charge  of  the  fund;  and 
also  to  leave  to  them  the  providing  of  some  just  and  particular 
mode  of  advancing  this  number  from  the  primary  schools  to 
the  academies,  and  from  the  academies  to  the  university. 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  75 

The  scheme  as  outlined  met  the  hearty  support  of 
the  Assembly,  and  a  bill,  based  on  the  report,  was  ac- 
cordingly prepared  and  presented.  The  proposed  legis- 
lation passed  its  first  reading  in  both  houses  and  then 
disappeared  from  the  records.  The  impracticable  fea- 
ture of  attempting  to  maintain  as  well  as  to  educate  the 
children  of  the  poor,  and  the  burdens  of  the  war  debt  of 
1812,  were  among  the  factors  combining  to  defeat  the 
scheme  which  "embraced  the  profoundest  and  most 
comprehensive  educational  wisdom  ever  presented  for 
the  consideration  of  a  North  Carolina  Legislature." 
The  friends  of  the  proposed  plan  were  unwilling  to 
eliminate  the  impracticable  features  and  legislative 
enactment  of  the  bill  proved  an  impossibility. 

There  is  a  certain  interesting  similarity  between  the 
general  plan  of  education  proposed  in  North  Carolina 
at  this  time  and  the  plan  offered  by  the  literary  board 
to  the  Legislature  of  Virginia  in  1817,  which  compre- 
hended a  university,  colleges,  academies,  and  primary 
schools.  By  that  plan  the  counties  were  to  be  divided 
into  townships  in  each  of  which  a  primary  school  was 
to  be  established.  The  teacher,  selected  by  local  trus- 
tees, could  receive  pupils,  other  than  those  to  be  edu- 
cated free  of  charge,  at  rates  to  be  decided  on  by  the 
trustees.  The  privilege  was  given  of  using  "the  new 
mode  of  teaching,  invented  by  Lancaster."  A  bill  con- 
formable to  the  recommendations  of  this  plan  was 
presented  to  the  Assembly  and  passed  in  the  House 
of  Delegates  by  a  vote  of  66  to  49.  But  it  was  defeated 
in  the  Senate,  the  vote  standing  7  to  7.  This  was  in 
February,  1817.  This  plan  and  the  bill  based  on  it  had 
been  "diligently  examined"  by  and  had  obviously 
influenced  the  Murphey  committee.   Both  reports  and 


76   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  bills  based  on  them  finally  met  practically  the  same 
fate. 

Although  this  attempt  to  establish  schools  failed,  agi- 
tation of  the  subject  did  not  cease.  Governor  Branch, 
in  his  message  to  the  Legislature  in  1818,  referred  es- 
pecially to  the  "solemn  injunction''  of  the  constitution, 
and  reminded  that  body  that  "by  this  chart  we  are 
bound,  as  the  servants  of  the  people  under  the  solemni- 
ties of  an  oath,  to  steer  the  vessel  of  state."  Assembly 
committees  on  education  continued  to  be  appointed. 
During  this  session  of  the  Legislature,  William  Martin, 
of  Pasquotank  County,  a  member  of  the  Senate  Com- 
mittee on  Education,  introduced  a  bill  to  establish  and 
regulate  schools  in  the  several  counties  of  the  State. 
By  the  plan  proposed  schools  were  to  be  established  in 
each  military  district.  The  county  courts  were  to  ap- 
point "five  persons  of  competent  skill  and  ability"  to 
have  direction  of  school  affairs  in  the  various  counties. 
Three  local  trustees,  to  be  appointed  by  these  county 
directors,  were  to  employ  the  teacher  and  "designate 
such  poor  children  in  their  neighborhood  as  they  shall 
think  ought  to  be  taught  free  of  any  charge."  These 
poor  children  were  also  to  receive  free  books  and  sta- 
tionery. The  expenses  of  the  schools  were  to  be  borne 
by  a  property  tax  of  ten  cents  on  the  hundred  dollars 
valuation  and  a  capitation  tax  of  fifty  cents  to  be  levied 
in  each  county.  Each  teacher  was  to  be  paid  an  annual 
salary  of  one  hundred  dollars1  from  the  county  funds  and 
also  receive  two  thirds  of  the  money  collected  from 
tuition.  The  bill  passed  its  first  reading  in  both  houses, 
and  passed  its  second  reading  in  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of 
53  to  2,  but  on  its  second  reading  in  the  House  it  was 
postponed  indefinitely. 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  77 

Governor  Branch  in  1819  again  called  attention  to  the 
need  for  legislative  action,  declaring  that  the  education 
of  the  youth  of  the  State  was  a  question  which  claimed 
attention  above  all  others.  In  the  same  year  an  article 
in  the  Bldkely  Gazette  pointed  out  that  there  was  a  pre- 
vailing sentiment  in  the  State  in  favor  of,  a  general 
system  of  education,  but  that  the  sparse  population 
rendered  difficult  the  execution  of  any  plan.  Moreover, 
there  was  a  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  how  schools  should 
be  supported.  The  Senate  Committee  on  Education,  to 
which  had  been  referred  that  part  of  the  Governor's 
message  which  concerned  schools,  made  an  interesting 
report  at  this  time  which  suggested  state  aid  for  schools 
and  the  establishment  of  a  school  fund  for  educational 
purposes. 

The  question  received  no  legislative  consideration 
again  until  1822,  when  Governor  Gabriel  Holmes  ad- 
dressed the  Assembly  somewhat  at  length  on  the  sub- 
ject. He  urged  obedience  to  the  constitutional  injunc- 
tion to  establish  schools.  "I  fear,  gentlemen*,  if  those 
venerable  fathers  were  to  rise  from  their  tombs,  they 
would  reproach  us  with  supineness  and  neglect,  and 
would  not  listen  to  our  plea  of  want  of  power.  We  shall 
never  know  what  power  we  have  until  we  exert  it." 
He  also  believed  that  agricultural  education  was  seri- 
ously neglected,  and  urged  attention  to  the  demands  of 
this  form  of  training.  His  message  had  a  slight  effect :  it 
was  proposed  that  taxes  on  auctioneers  be  used  to  assist 
academies  in  the  State,  and  a  resolution  was  adopted 
which  looked  to  securing  educational  aid  from  the  na- 
tional government.  But  both  of  the  efforts  failed. 

In  1823  Governor  Holmes  again  referred  to  the  need 
for  agricultural  education  and  recommended  the  pur- 


78      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

chase  of  a  small  farm  near  the  university  to  serve  as  a 
model  for  scientific  and  practical  farming.  At  this  ses- 
sion of  the  Assembly,  J.  A.  Hill,  of  New  Hanover 
County,  introduced  a  resolution  in  the  House  to  author- 
ize the  committee  on  education  to  inquire  "  into  the  ex- 
pediency of  establishing'*  a  school  system  in  accordance 
with  the  requirement  of  the  constitution.  In  that  same 
year  the  Western  Carolinian  editorially  commented  on 
the  legislative  neglect  of  education,  pointed  out  that  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  of  the  State  were  deficient  in 
the  rudiments  of  education,  and  declared  that  "No  ap- 
propriation which  the  Legislature  could  make  would  be 
so  little  objected  to  as  one  for  the  support  of  common 
schools.  We  do  hope  some  member  will  make  an  experi- 
ment this  session,  and  see  what  can  be  done  in  the  Leg- 
islature on  this  subject."  No  legislative  action  was 
taken,  however. 

With  the  year  1824  there  appeared  an  educational 
sentiment  more  vigorous  and  widespread  than  had 
before  been  seen,  though  the  Legislature  took  no  for- 
ward steps  educationally.  In  his  message  to  the  Assem- 
bly Governor  Holmes  regretted  that  in  spite  of  a  treas- 
ury "abounding  in  gold  and  silver  .  .  .  collected  from 
the  people,"  no  appropriation  had  been  made  for 
schools. 

Surely,  then,  we  cannot,  consistent  with  good  policy,  hesi- 
tate to  create  a  fund  that  will  assist  the  parents  of  every  denom- 
ination to  initiate  their  offspring  in  elementary  rudiments  of 
learning.  .  .  .  The  people  are  industrious  and  patriotic;  they 
cheerfully  subscribe  to  the  necessary  demands  of  the  State 
upon  their  purse,  without  a  murmur.  They  would  gladly  re- 
ceive and  greatly  acknowledge  your  patronage  for  the  im- 
provement of  their  f amilies.  They  have  a  right  fully  to  antici- 
pate your  fostering  care.  .  .  . 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  79 

Although  he  touched  "  the  chord  with  almost  hopeless 
expectations  and  frigid  indifference,"  an  unexpected 
response  came  in  the  form  of  an  interesting  report  from 
the  Senate  Committee  on  Education.  This  report  spoke 
eloquently  of  the  evils  of  ignorance  and  of  the  advan- 
tages of  "a  general  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge "  and 
concluded  that  the  talents  of  the  poor  of  the  State  should 
especially  be  provided  for,  since  the  wealthy  already  had 
the  means  of  education.  On  this  report  was  based  a  bill 
which  proposed  to  create  a  fund  for  educational  pur- 
poses. It  was  introduced  by  Charles  A.  Hill,  of  Franklin 
County,  chairman  of  the  Senate  Committee,  and  bore 
the  title,  "A  bill  to  create  a  fund  for  educating  that  part 
of  the  infant  population  of  the  State  who  shall  from 
time  to  time  be  found  destitute  of  the  means  of  becom- 
ing otherwise  properly  taken  care  of  in  that  particular." 
The  sources  of  the  fund  were  to  be  certain  bank  stock  to 
be  acquired  by  the  State  and  certain  license  taxes.  The 
management  of  the  fund  was  also  provided  for  in  the 
bill.  It  passed  the  Senate  on  its  third  reading  by  a  vote 
of  38  to  16,  but  was  indefinitely  postponed  in  the  House 
without  a  division  December  30. 

Similar  action  was  later  taken  in  this  body  on  a  bill 
introduced  by  Samuel  P.  Ashe,  of  Cumberland  County, 
which  provided  for  a  fund  and  a  plan  for  the  education 
of  the  poor  children  in  the  various  counties  of  the  State. 
By  this  bill  schools  were  to  be  established  in  every  county 
and  were  to  be  maintained  by  an  annual  appropriation 
from  the  state  treasury  which  was  to  be  apportioned  by 
officials  to  be  known  as  "County  Commissioners  for  the 
Education  of  the  Poor."  These  commissioners  were  to 
determine  what  children  were  entitled  to  share  in  this 
bounty  and  to  make  provision  for  them  to  be  taught 


80   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  rudiments  of  an  English  education.  On  its  second 
reading  the  bill  was  amended  and  postponed  indefi- 
nitely, January  3,  1825.  On  the  same  day  a  resolution 
was  introduced  in  the  House  to  appoint  a  committee  to 
prepare  a  plan  or  system  of  public  education  for  the 
instruction  of  children  of  "poor  or  indigent  parentage" 
to  be  reported  at  the  next  session,  and  was  passed  as  a 
joint  resolution  of  the  two  houses.  In  his  report  to  the 
same  Assembly  John  Haywood,  treasurer  of  the  State, 
recommended  the  use  of  certain  stock  belonging  to  the 
State  as  the  nucleus  of  a  fund  for  education,  "which 
might  ultimately  prove  commensurate  to  the  providing 
the  means  of  education,  throughout  the  State,  for  that 
portion  of  our  citizens  who  may,  from  time  to  time,  be 
found  destitute  of  them.'*  This  would  form  at  least  a 
"hopeful  beginning"  and  solve  the  problem  of  estab- 
lishing schools  without  taxation. 

Haywood's  plan  led  to  newspaper  comments  on  the 
subject.  The  Western  Carolinian  editorially  approved  it 
and  agitated  legislative  action,  and  articles  in  the  same 
paper  signed  by  "A.  B."  compared  North  Carolina's 
apparent  indifference  with  the  educational  achievements 
of  some  of  the  Eastern  States.  The  same  articles  recom- 
mended primary  schools  and  the  establishment  of 
schools  to  train  teachers.  It  was  believed  that  the  State 
was  amply  able  to  support  an  educational  system.  And 
at  the  same  time  an  educational  meeting  was  held  in 
Edgecombe  County  and  decision  made  to  petition  the 
Legislature  in  behalf  of  common  schools;  the  appeal 
from  the  Edgecombe  citizens  was  published  in  the 
Raleigh  Register.  Other  newspaper  articles  appeared, 
and  the  public  conscience  showed  signs  of  being  awak- 
ened on  the  subject. 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  81 

We  have  seen  that  the  first  signal  victory  for  educa- 
tion in  North  Carolina  came  when  the  constitutional 
provision  for  schools  was  adopted  in  1776.  The  second 
victory  came  in  1825  when  the  law  creating  a  school 
fund  was  enacted.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Assembly  that 
year,  Governor  Burton  declared  that  education  was 
more  important  than  internal  improvements,  a  subject 
which  had  been  given  legislative  attention  for  eight 
years.  Real  freedom  was  impossible  without  education; 
education  was  necessary  for  the  people  to  appreciate 
their  political  blessings.  At  this  time  a  petition  for 
free  schools  was  presented  from  Beaufort  County, 
and  the  Orange  County  Sunday-School  Union  asked 
legislative  aid  for  its  work.  This  petition,  which  was 
signed  by  forty  citizens,  recited  that  the  society  had 
under  its  care  twenty-two  Sunday  schools  with  an  en- 
rollment of  nearly  one  thousand  "children,  many  of 
whom,  —  the  children  of  the  poor,  —  who  would  other- 
wise have  been  brought  up  in  utter  ignorance  and  vice, 
have  been  taught  to  read  and  trained  to  habits  of  moral 
reflection  and  conduct.  The  schools  have  been  hereto- 
fore supplied  with  books  for  the  most  part  by  the  charity 
of  the  public,  and  it  is  to  furnish  the  necessary  books, 
that  your  memorialists  pray  for  such  aid,  as  that  the 
sum  of  twenty-five  cents  per  annum  may  be  paid  for 
every  Sunday-school  learner  under  their  care,  out  of  the 
public  taxes."  The  committee  to  whom  the  petition  was 
referred  considered  it  inexpedient  to  grant  the  request 
and  the  petition  was  rejected. 

The  committee  appointed  the  previous  year  made  its 
report  on  a  plan  for  a  general  system  of  schools  for  the 
State.  In  most  respects  the  plan  proposed  was  similar 
to  previous  plans.   Its  most  interesting  feature  was  its 


82   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

provision  for  taxation  for  school  support,  and  this  provi- 
sion meant  immediate  death  to  the  plan.  A  few  days 
later  an  attempt  was  made  to  create  a  school  fund  by 
lottery,  but  this  likewise  was  defeated.  But  Charles  A. 
Hill,  of  Franklin  County,  who  had  the  previous  year 
presented  a  bill  to  create  a  school  fund,  now  reported  to 
the  Senate  a  bill  to  create  a  fund  for  the  establishment  of 
common  schools  in  the  State,  which  passed  through  the 
usual  legislative  channels  without  division  in  either 
house  and  regularly  became  law.  The  act  was  drawn  by 
Bartlett  Yancey,  President  of  the  Senate,  and  a  former 
student  of  law  under  Judge  Murphey.  The  provision  of 
this  act  and  the  influence  of  the  fund  created  by  it  will 
be  treated  in  another  chapter. 


THE  EARLY  AGITATION  83 


REFERENCES 

Journals  of  the  House  and  Senate;  Public  Laws  of  North 
Carolina;  legislative  documents;  Coon,  Public  Education  in 
North  Carolina,  1790-1840,  A  Documentary  History;  Weeks, 
Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the  Common 
Schools  of  North  Carolina;  Smith,  History  of  Education  in 
North  Carolina;  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  1895-96. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  was  the  final  influence  of  the  American  Revolution 
on  education  in  the  United  States? 

2.  How  did  the  influence  express  itself  in  North  Carolina? 

3.  What  arguments  are  made  in  the  messages  of  the  gover- 
nors during  the  early  years  of  the  national  period  for 
legislative  establishment  of  schools? 

4.  Compare  the  constitutional  provision  for  education  in 
North  Carolina  with  similar  provisions  in  the  constitu- 
tions of  other  States. 

5.  What  States  had  made  constitutional  provision  for 
schools  before  1825?  How  many  States  had  established 
school  systems  by  that  date? 

6.  What  were  the  merits  of  the  plan  proposed  by  Murphey 
in  1817  for  a  school  system  in  North  Carolina?  What 
were  its  weaknesses? 

7.  Compare  that  plan  with  the  plan  proposed  for  Virginia 
about  the  same  time. 

8.  Compare  Murphey 's  plan  with  the  plan  presented  by 
Walker. 

9.  What  was  the  Lancasterian  system  of  education  which 
Murphey  recommended?  What  advantages  were  claimed 
for  it?  To  what  extent  was  the  system  adopted  or  used  in 
North  Carolina? 

10.  What  is  the  historical  relation  between  the  Sunday- 
school  movement  and  the  public-school  movement  in 
the  United  States?  Trace  the  historical  development  of 
the  Sunday-school  movement  in  North  Carolina. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  LITERARY  FUND 

So  universal  is  the  acceptance  of  the  free-school  idea 
to-day  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  it  has  developed 
through  opposition  and  struggle  or  that  any  other  edu- 
cational theory  ever  found  widespread  support  in  demo- 
cratic communities.  But  public  sentiment  in  regard  to 
public  education,  free  and  open  alike  to  all,  has  under- 
gone remarkable  changes  during  the  past  century. 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  even  as  late  as  the 
thirties,  sentiment  was  more  or  less  hostile  to  the  princi- 
ple of  free  schools,  as  that  principle  is  now  accepted. 
Not  only  were  schools  and  the  means  of  education  at 
state  expense  rare,  but  taxation  for  educational  pur- 
poses was  everywhere  difficult  to  levy.  Efficient  state 
supervision  and  control,  now  so  rapidly  developing,  was 
practically  unknown;  laws  which  looked  to  encouraging 
free  schools  were  permissive  and  hard  to  enforce;  even 
the  income  from  endowments  created  for  free-school 
support  was  frequently  used  for  other  than  educational 
purposes,  and  not  infrequently  the  endowment  itself 
was  mismanaged  and  exploited  for  private  ends.  In- 
difference, contempt,  and  hostility  confronted  the  early 
movements  for  establishing  and  maintaining  systems  of 
public  free  schools. 

But  the  gradual  growth  of  the  free-school  idea  reveals 
the  slow  development  of  two  important  principles  of 
education  which  to-day  are  present  in  every  adequate 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  85 

and  sound  public-school  system.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
democratic  principle  that  education  is  the  function  of 
the  State  rather  than  a  family  function  or  a  parental 
obligation,  and  that  the  responsibility  of  providing  the 
means  of  education  rests  primarily  with  the  State.  The 
other  principle  is  that  the  State  has  the  power  and  the 
right  to  raise  by  taxation  on  the  property  of  its  members 
sufficient  funds  for  adequate  school  support.  Both  of 
these  principles  are  now  generally  accepted  in  North 
Carolina,  though  here  as  elsewhere  they  have  won  ac- 
ceptance in  the  face  of  such  bitter  opposition  and  cold 
indifference  that  their  period  of  intense  struggle  is  now 
not  only  difficult  to  recount,  but  even  more  difficult, 
perhaps,  to  realize. 

This  remarkable  change  had  its  origin  very  largely  in 
the  establishment  of  permanent  public  endowments, 
popularly  known  as  "literary"  or  "school"  funds,  the 
income  from  which  was  designed  to  apply  to  public- 
school  support.  Such  funds  have  fostered  and  encour- 
aged the  growth  of  the  present  conception  of  education 
as  a  public  duty.  In  almost  every  State  in  the  United 
States  the  public-school  system  was  begun  and  set  in 
action  through  this  popular  method  of  support.  More- 
over, no  feature  of  the  public-school  systems  of  the 
United  States  has  rendered  greater  or  more  lasting  serv- 
ice than  public  educational  endowments,  in  destroying 
opposition  to  taxation  for  school  purposes,  in  developing 
a  wholesome  educational  sentiment,  and  finally,  in  stim- 
ulating local  initiative  and  community  enterprise.  His- 
torically, therefore,  the  origin,  development,  and  influ- 
ence of  a  public-school  fund  have  an  important  place  in 
a  treatment  such  as  this. 

A  variety  of  purposes  or  incentives  for  creating  per- 


88      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

manent  public-school  endowments  appears,  and  a  few 
of  them  may  be  noted  here.  Notwithstanding  the  condi- 
tions which  at  one  time  generally  opposed  free  schools, 
public  sentiment  was  never  unanimous  against  them. 
There  were  a  few  public-spirited  citizens  in  most  com- 
munities who  considered  state  education  not  only  a 
necessary  duty  but  a  rare  opportunity  for  promoting 
intelligent  and  efficient  citizenship.  The  discharge  of 
this  duty  called  for  funds,  and  there  was  almost  every- 
where a  dominating  sentiment  against  taxation  for  any- 
thing except  the  necessary  expenses  of  government. 
Schools  were  not  yet  properly  considered  a  state  obliga- 
tion. Therefore,  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  fund 
promised  a  means  of  escape  from  taxation  for  schools 
and  relief  to  towns  and  communities  from  this  burden. 
This  seems  to  be  the  oldest  aim  or  incentive  for  estab- 
lishing a  permanent  public-school  fund,  and  is  illus- 
trated by  the  act  of  1795  which  established  such  an  en- 
dowment in  Connecticut.  The  result  was  unexpected 
and  unwholesome:  the  fund  failed  to  make  the  schools 
free,  the  gradual  increase  in  its  income  gradually  de- 
creased the  tendency  to  raise  local  school  taxes,  and 
from  1821  to  1854  practically  the  only  sources  of  school 
support  in  that  State  were  the  income  from  the  school 
fund,  gifts,  and  rate  bills,  which  were  not  abolished  until 
1868. 

Other  States  profited  by  the  costly  lesson  Connecticut 
had  learned.  It  was  clearly  demonstrated  that  an  en- 
dowment should  not  entirely  relieve  a  community  from 
local  burdens,  but  should  stimulate  and  encourage  local 
effort  for  school  support.  Any  other  principle  is  not  only 
a  moral  injury  to  the  community  and  to  the  cause  for 
which  the  fund  was  provided,  but  means  death  to  that 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  87 

cause  if  the  people  are  relieved  of  all  responsibility  of 
assisting  in  its  support.  Therefore,  another  aim  in  estab- 
lishing school  funds  was  to  encourage  local  taxation. 
The  earliest  example  of  this  principle  is  found  in  the 
case  of  New  York,  where  its  founders  never  contem- 
plated that  the  fund,  established  in  1805,  should  yield 
sufficient  revenue  entirely  to  support  the  schools.  The 
principle  here  adopted  was  that  of  local  taxation;  be- 
fore a  community  could  participate  in  a  distribution  of 
the  revenue  of  the  fund  an  amount  equal  to  its  share  had 
to  be  raised  by  local  levy.  This  principle  has  been  the 
one  most  generally  accepted  as  the  soundest  and  most 
stimulating  to  the  cause  of  adequate  school  support,  and 
is  now,  with  some  modifications,  the  one  most  exten- 
sively adopted  in  the  various  States.  It  was  this  prin- 
ciple which  was  adopted  in  North  Carolina  in  1839 
when  the  fund  was  considered  of  sufficient  accumulation 
to  launch  a  school  system;  and  on  this  principle  the  in- 
come of  the  fund  was  distributed  throughout  the  ante- 
bellum period. 

Other  lawful  objects  to  which  the  income  of  perma- 
nent school  endowments  may  now  be  applied  are  num- 
erous. In  some  cases  it  may  be  used  for  teachers*  sala- 
ries, the  expenses  of  summer  normal  schools,  institutes, 
or  other  forms  of  teacher  training;  in  others,  for  the  con- 
struction and  equipment  of  schoolhouses;  in  others  for 
pupils'  tuition,  transportation,  or  textbooks,  and  in 
others  still,  for  school  supervision.  The  income  from  the 
present  fund  in  North  Carolina,  by  act  of  January,  1903, 
is  applied  exclusively  to  the  purpose  of  building  school- 
houses.  Local  communities  may  borrow  from  the  fund 
one  half  the  cost  of  the  new  building,  repaying  the  amount 
in  ten  equal  annual  payments  at  four  percent  interest. 


88   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

North  Carolina's  school  fund,  known  as  the  "literary 
fund/'  was  created  in  1825.  At  that  time  eleven  other 
States  had  created  similar  permanent  endowments  for 
public-school  purposes:  Connecticut  in  1795,  Delaware 
in  1796,  New  York  in  1805,  Tennessee  in  1806,  Virginia 
in  1810,  Maryland  in  1813,  Georgia  and  New  Jersey  in 
1817,  and  Illinois,  Kentucky,  and  Mississippi  between 
1818  and  1821.  New  Hampshire  created  a  fund  in  1821, 
but  it  was  not  a  permanent  fund,  and  no  permanent 
fund  was  established  in  that  State  until  1867.  North 
Carolina  was  therefore  the  eighth  of  the  original,  and 
the  sixth  of  the  Southern,  States  to  establish  a  perma- 
nent public  endowment  for  educational  purposes.  The 
act  creating  the  fund  defined  its  sources  as :  — 

The  dividends  arising  from  the  stock  now  held  by  the  State 
in  the  banks  of  Newbern  and  Cape  Fear  and  which  have  not 
heretofore  been  pledged  and  set  apart  for  internal  improve- 
ments; the  dividends  arising  from  stock  which  is  owned  by  the 
State  in  the  Cape  Fear  Navigation  Company,  the  Roanoke 
Navigation  Company,  and  the  Clubfoot  and  Harlow  Creek 
Canal  Company;  the  tax  imposed  by  law  on  licenses  to  the 
retailers  of  spirituous  liquors  and  auctioneers;  the  unexpended 
balance  of  the  Agricultural  Fund,  which  by  the  act  of  the 
Legislature  is  directed  to  be  paid  into  the  public  treasury;  all 
moneys  paid  to  the  State  for  the  entries  of  vacant  lands  (ex- 
cept the  Cherokee  lands) ;  the  sum  of  twenty-one  thousand  and 
ninety  dollars,  which  was  paid  by  this  State  to  certain  Chero- 
kee Indians,  for  reservations  to  lands  secured  by  them  by 
treaty,  when  the  said  sums  shall  be  received  from  the  United 
States  by  this  State;  and  of  all  the  vacant  and  unappropriated 
swamp  lands  in  this  State,  together  with  such  sums  of  money 
as  the  Legislature  may  hereafter  find  it  convenient  to  appro- 
priate from  time  to  time. 

The  same  act  vested  the  fund  in  the  governor,  the 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  the  President  of  the 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  89 

Senate,  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  the  treasurer  of  the  State,  as  directors  of  the  endow- 
ment. This  body  was  directed  to  invest  the  funds  in  the 
stock  of  any  of  the  state  banks  or  of  the  United  States 
and  to  alter  and  change  such  investments  in  any  way 
that  would  promote  their  value.  The  fund  thus  pro- 
vided, when  sufficiently  accumulated,  was  to  be  applied 
to  the  instruction  of  the  youth  of  the  State  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  to  be  divided 
among  the  counties  in  proportion  to  their  free  white 
population. 

The  growth  of  the  fund  was  slow  during  its  early 
period.  When  the  first  report  of  the  literary  board  was 
made  to  the  Legislature  in  February,  1827,  the  receipts 
of  the  fund  previous  to  November  1,  1826,  amounted  to 
$12,304.95.  At  this  time  the  State  owned  2762  shares 
of  stock  in  the  Bank  of  the  State,  valued  at  $276,200, 
the  dividends  from  which  were  then  applied  to  the  or- 
dinary expenses  of  the  government.  It  also  held  1663 
shares  in  the  Bank  of  Newbern,  valued  at  $166,300,  and 
2057  shares  in  the  Bank  of  Cape  Fear,  valued  at  $205,- 
700.  The  income  from  1304  shares  in  the  Bank  of  New- 
bern and  1358  shares  in  the  Bank  of  Cape  Fear,  which 
the  State  held  before  1821,  was  set  apart  and  applied  to 
internal  improvements.  The  dividends  arising  from  the 
remaining  359  shares  in  the  Bank  of  Newbern,  and  699 
shares  in  the  Bank  of  Cape  Fear,  were  pledged  to  the 
literary  fund.  The  board  recommended  "that  the  stock 
now  owned  by  the  State  and  purchased  since  1821,  and 
that  which  may  be  acquired  in  the  Banks  of  Newbern 
and  Cape  Fear"  be  transferred  to  the  literary  board  for 
educational  purposes.  If  the  fund  were  thus  increased, 
the  report  stated,  schools  could  soon  be  established. 


90   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  second  report  of  the  board  showed  that  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  fund  for  the  year  ending  November  1, 
1827,  amounted  to  $23,702.37,  making  an  aggregate  sum 
of  more  than  $36,000  belonging  to  the  fund  at  that  time. 
The  third  report,  dated  December,  1828,  placed  the  ag- 
gregate! amount  of  the  fund  at  $77,811.62.  The  board 
urged  "a  steady  perseverance  in  the  plan  which  is  now 
in  operation  and  which  promises  at  no  very  distant 
period  to  realize  the  benevolent  and  patriotic  expecta- 
tions of  those  with  whom  it  originated." 

The  income  from  the  fund  for  1829  was  more  than 
$16,000.  In  1830  it  was  $30,152.88;  the  following  year 
the  fund  amounted  to  $74,476.48,  and  on  November  1, 
1832,  it  amounted  to  $88,165.61.  For  the  year  ending 
November  1,  1833,  the  receipts  of  the  fund  were  more 
than  $28,000,  making  the  total  amount  of  the  fund  about 
$117,000.  No  expenditures  had  been  made  from  the  fund 
since  1828.  The  entire  fund  was  therefore  idle  and  un- 
productive during  those  years.  The  act  creating  the  en- 
dowment gave  the  literary  board  authority  to  invest  any 
part  or  the  whole  of  the  fund  in  the  stock  of  any  of  the 
banks  of  the  State,  or  in  the  stock  of  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States.  The  board  was  declining  to  exercise  this 
authority  largely  because  it  was  uncertain  of  the  proper 
construction  to  be  put  on  this  part  of  the  act.  Problems 
of  safe  investments  remained  throughout  the  life  of  the 
fund  one  of  its  serious  difficulties.  Until  1838  they  were 
in  fact  the  chief  problems  confronting  the  board.  Not 
until  that  date  was  the  revenue  of  the  fund  appro- 
priated for  school  support,  and  then  the  principle  on 
which  appropriations  were  made  was  simple.  Each 
school  district  which  raised  by  local  taxation  the  sum 
of  twenty  dollars  for  school  support  was  entitled  to 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  91 

receive  twice  that  amount  from  the  income  of  the  lit- 
erary fund. 

Criticism  of  the  management  of  the  fund  was  frequent 
and  well  founded.  It  was  not  unusual  for  drafts  to  be 
made  on  it  for  deficiencies  in  the  public  fund;  and  so 
common  and  continuous  was  this  use  of  the  educational 
fund  that  the  state  treasurer  in  1832,  himself  a  member 
of  the  literary  board,  urged  some  provision  by  which 
the  fund  could  be  preserved  and  improved.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  amounts  due  the  literary  fund  from 
the  public  fund,  at  the  end  of  certain  months  in  1832  and 
1833:  — 

January $2,937.20 

February 51,271.68 

March 52,913.25 

April 52,766.05 

May 58,380.11 

June 60,823.92 

July 60,455.30 

August 64,339.88 

September 56,762.66 

October 5,198.42 

December 14,125.05 

January  (1833) 24,547.69 

February 66,016.75 

March 12,982.49 

April 12,742.73 

When  drafts  were  made  on  the  school  fund  to  supply 
deficiencies  in  the  public  fund,  the  amounts  were  re- 
placed as  soon  as  the  taxes  "afforded  the  means."  But 
this  use  of  the  fund  practically  nullified  the  design  of  its 
founders;  moreover,  control  of  the  fund  was  thus  vir- 
tually taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  literary  board. 
The  treasurer  said,  commenting  on  the  practice:  — 


92     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

To  suffer  thus  to  go  to  decay,  and  to  be  consumed,  means 
liberally  provided  and  set  apart  by  previous  Legislatures  for 
the  benefit  of  an  after  generation,  resembles  in  some  respects 
the  conduct  of  an  improvident  heir,  who  wastes  in  mere  indo- 
lence what  has  been  saved,  by  the  industry  and  economy  of 
the  ancestor,  for  the  lasting  improvement  of  the  inheritance. 

On  November  1,  1834,  the  literary  fund  amounted  to 
$139,403.99.  With  this  amount  1200  shares  of  stock  in 
the  Bank  of  North  Carolina  were  bought  at  a  cost  of 
$120,000,  leaving  an  unexpended  balance  of  $19,403.99 
in  the  treasury  to  the  credit  of  the  fund.  The  receipts 
during  the  next  year  amounted  to  $29,670.72,  which 
made  a  total  of  $49,074.71  in  the  treasury  November  1, 
1835.  Out  of  this  balance  investments  in  more  bank 
stock  had  been  made  to  the  amount  of  $46,600,  and 
other  disbursements  during  the  year  reduced  the  balance 
to  $1167.08.  The  receipts  during  the  year  ending  No- 
vember 1,  1836,  amounted  to  $32,642.71.  Investments 
and  other  expenditures  for  the  same  period  amounted 
to  $29,964.70,  leaving  in  the  treasury  the  sum  of 
$3845.09. 

Nothing  had  yet  been  done  toward  the  establishment 
of  a  system  of  schools.  As  has  already  been  seen,  there 
was  a  growing  wholesome  educational  sentiment  and  a 
constant  agitation  for  beginning  some  sort  of  educa- 
tional plan;  but  the  literary  board  seemed  to  regard  its 
duties  as  being  confined  entirely  to  the  management  of 
the  fund.  The  reports  of  the  board  were,  therefore, 
financial  rather  than  educational.  Moreover,  during 
this  period  the  fund  was  considered  by  the  State  and 
private  corporations  and  individuals  as  a  convenient 
source  for  drawing  or  borrowing  when  in  need.  The 
literary  fund  was  regarded  as  too  small  to  support  a 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  93 

school  system,  and  the  cause  of  education,  having  no 
powerful  champions,  suffered  as  a  consequence. 

But  a  decided  change  appeared  after  1836,  when  the 
fund  was  greatly  increased  by  the  distribution  of  the 
surplus  revenue  in  the  federal  treasury.  Enormous  reve- 
nues had  accumulated  as  a  result  of  unprecedented  land 
sales  and  of  the  protective  tariff;  and  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Webster,  who  introduced  the  measure,  an  act 
was  passed  distributing  the  surplus  on  hand  January  1, 
1837,  among  the  several  States  then  in  the  Union,  on  the 
basis  of  their  representation  in  Congress.  The  States 
were  to  agree  to  return  the  money  when  called  on,  pro- 
vided not  more  than  $10,000  should  be  demanded  at 
any  one  time  from  any  one  State  without  sufficient  no- 
tice, and  all  the  States  were  to  be  called  on  for  their 
respective  parts  at  the  same  time.  More  than  $28,000,- 
000  was  thus  distributed. 

North  Carolina's  share  amounted  to  $1,433,757.40, 
and  its  disposition  was  determined  by  several  important 
interests  and  conditions.1  The  first  of  these  was  finan- 
cial and  had  to  do  with  internal  improvements.  Previ- 
ous state  aid  to  this  interest  had  not  only  proved  un- 
profitable, but  it  had  failed  to  decrease  the  need  for 
better  transportation  facilities.  Moreover,  private  com- 
panies and  individual  effort  were  ill-prepared  to  engage 
in  such  enterprises;  and  with  the  era  of  railroad  con- 
struction at  hand  there  was  a  growing  demand  for  a 
combination  of  state  and  private  capital.  Such  a  policy 
had  been  recommended  repeatedly.  It  had  also  been 
urged  that  the  vast  acreage  of  unavailable  swamp  lands 
belonging  to  the  State  be  drained  so  as  to  be  made  pro- 

1  Boyd,  "The  Finances  of  the  North  Carolina  Literary  Fund," 
South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  July  and  October,  1914. 


94   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

ductive  and  profitable.  But  lack  of  funds  prevented  the 
State  from  inaugurating  such  a  policy. 

A  decrease  in  the  ancient  and  intense  sectional  rivalry 
between  eastern  and  western  interests  also  proved  of 
influence  in  determining  the  disposition  of  North  Caro- 
lina's share  of  the  surplus  revenue.  This  rivalry  had  for 
a  generation  existed  as  a  result  of  an  unequal  distribu- 
tion of  representation  in  the  Legislature,  and  demands 
for  constitutional  reform  had  as  long  been  insistent. 
With  the  revision  of  the  Constitution  in  1835,  this  re- 
form was  secured  and  the  conflict  appeared  less  intense. 
Chance  for  united  effort  on  public  matters  was  now 
greatly  enhanced.  Moreover,  the  rise  of  the  Whig  Party 
revealed  an  important  influence  in  North  Carolina, 
where  it  adopted,  and  elected  a  governor  in  1836  on, 
the  progressive  policy  of  increased  state  aid  to  internal 
improvements.  These  conditions  and  influences  were 
purely  political  in  character.  Another  equally  important 
influence,  perhaps,  but  of  a  different  nature,  was  the  de- 
pleted condition  of  the  state  treasury.  In  the  year  that 
the  surplus  revenue  was  distributed,  North  Carolina  had 
a  debt  of  about  $400,000  and  a  record  of  expenses  ex- 
ceeding or  equaling  the  revenues.  And  the  literary  fund 
was  still  insufficient  for  immediate  educational  service. 

A  joint  legislative  committee  of  twenty-six  members, 
with  William  A.  Graham,  Whig,  as  chairman,  was  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  best  method  of  disposing  of 
the  share  coming  to  North  Carolina.  The  recommenda- 
tion of  the  committee  was  that  $900,000  be  placed  to 
the  credit  of  the  literary  fund,  and  the  remainder  be 
applied  to  internal  improvements.  The  opposition,  rep- 
resenting the  Democrats,  proposed  that  the  money  be 
used  to  redeem  the  $400,000  debt  of  the  State,  to  in- 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  95 

crease  the  literary  fund  and  the  fund  for  internal  im- 
provements, to  drain  and  improve  the  swamp  lands, 
and  to  assist  in  railroad  construction.  The  plan  finally 
adopted  disposed  of  the  amount  allotted  to  North  Caro- 
lina by  appropriating  $100,000  to  the  contingent  ex- 
penses of  the  state  government;  the  sum  of  $300,000  to 
redeem  the  public  debt;  the  sum  of  $300,000  to  the  credit 
of  the  literary  fund;  the  sum  of  $200,000  to  drain  the 
swamp  lands;  and  the  remaining  $533,757.40  to  the  fund 
for  internal  improvements.  The  appropriation  to  the 
literary  fund  was  to  be  invested  in  stock  of  the  Bank  of 
Cape  Fear,  and  the  $200,000  appropriated  to  drain  the 
swamp  lands  was  indirectly  an  appropriation  to  the  same 
fund,  since  the  income  from  these  lands  was  to  be  applied 
to  it  when  the  entries  were  made.  Eventually  all  of 
North  Carolina's  share  became  a  part  of  the  literary  fund 
except  the  sum  appropriated  to  the  current  expenses  of 
the  state  government.  But  the  $500,000  immediately 
placed  to  the  credit  of  the  fund  was  not  the  only  increase 
of  that  endowment  at  this  time.  By  further  legislation, 
all  the  vacant  swamp  lands  of  the  State  were  formally 
vested  in  the  literary  fund.  Moreover,  railroad  stock 
owned  by  the  State  and  amounting  to  $600,000,  the 
revenue  from  certain  loans  made  by  the  internal  im- 
provements board,  and  4000  shares  of  stock  in  the 
Bank  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  valued  at  $400,- 
000,  and  3000  shares  in  the  Bank  of  Cape  Fear,  valued 
at  $300,000,  both  the  property  of  the  State,  were  like- 
wise vested  in  the  literary  board  for  educational  pur- 
poses. The  principal  of  the  literary  fund  was  thus  in- 
creased about  $1,800,000.  In  November,  1840,  the  total 
resources  of  the  fund  amounted  to  $2,241,480.05,  and 
consisted  of:  — 


96      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Bank  stock $1,032,200.00 

Railroad  stock 600,000.00 

Navigation  stock 87,500.00 

Railroad  bonds 225,000.00 

Notes  of  individuals  and  corporations      155,943.75 

Swamp  improvements 62,829.24 

Cash  on  hand 78,007.06 

Total $2,241,480.05 

The  accompanying  table  on  page  97  shows  the  amounts 
of  the  surplus  revenue  allotted  to  the  other  States  and 
how  the  funds  were  used.1 

With  the  distribution  of  the  surplus  revenue  in  1837 
the  literary  fund  was  considered  sufficient  to  begin  the 
support  of  or  assistance  to  a  system  of  common  schools. 
By  act  of  January  20,  1837,  certain  changes  were  made 
in  the  composition  of  the  literary  board  so  as  to  in- 
crease its  responsibility.  The  governor,  by  virtue  of  his 
office,  was  to  remain  president  with  power  to  select 
with  the  advice  of  his  council  the  other  three  members 
of  the  board.  At  the  same  time  the  House  passed  a  reso- 
lution which  instructed  the  Committee  on  Education 
"to  inquire  into  the  expediency  of  establishing  a  general 
system  of  free  schools  throughout  the  State,"  and  the 
Senate  likewise  resolved  that  the  literary  board  "be 
instructed  to  digest  a  plan  for  common  schools,  suited  to 
the  condition  and  resources"  of  the  State,  to  be  re- 
ported at  the  next  session  of  the  Legislature.  The  report 
was  made  December  4,  1838,  and  as  a  result  the  first 
public-school  law  of  the  State  was  passed  January  7, 
1839. 2  The  principle  of  school  support  adopted  by  this 

1  Blackmar,  The  History  of  Federal  and  State  Aid  to  Higher  Educa- 
tion, Bureau  of  Education  Circular  of  Information,  no.  1, 1890,  p.  46. 

2  This  report  of  the  literary  board  and  the  act  of  1839  are  treated 
fully  in  chapter  vm. 


THE  LITERARY  FUND 


97 


State 

Amount 

How  used 

Alabama 

$669,086.78 

Education. 

Arkansas 

286,751.48 

General  purposes. 

Connecticut .... 

764,670.61 

One  half  to  education  and  one  half 
to  general  purposes. 

Delaware 

286,751.48 

Education. 

Georgia 

1,051,422.09 

One  third  to  education  and  two 
thirds  to  general  purposes. 

Illinois 

477,919.13 

Education  and  internal  improve- 
ments. 

Indiana 

860,254.44 

One  half  to  education  and  one  half 
to  general  purposes. 

Kentucky 

1,443,757.40 

Education. 

Louisiana 

477,919.13 

General  purposes. 

Maine 

955,838.27 

General  purposes. 

Education  and  general  purposes. 

Maryland 

955,838.27 

Massachusetts.  . 

1,338,173.57 

General  purposes. 

Michigan 

286,751.48 

Internal  improvements. 

Mississippi 

382,335.31 

General  purposes. 

Missouri 

382,335.31 

Education. 

New  Hampshire. 

669,086.78 

General  purposes. 

New  Jersey 

764,670.61 

General  purposes. 

New  York 

4,014,520.71 

Education. 

North  Carolina  . 

1,433,757.40 

Education  and  internal  improve- 
ments. 

Ohio 

2,007,260.36 

Education. 

Pennsylvania . .  . 

2,867,514.80 

Partly  for  education. 

Rhode  Island . . . 

382,335.31 

Education. 

South  Carolina. . 

1,051,422.09 

One  third  to  education  and  two 
thirds  to  general  purposes. 

Tennessee 

1,433,757.40 

General  purposes. 

Vermont 

669,086.78 

Education. 

Virginia 

2,198,428.04 

General  purposes. 

legislation  was  that  of  local  taxation  combined  with 
appropriations  from  the  literary  fund;  each  school  dis- 
trict which  raised  by  local  levy  the  sum  of  twenty  dol- 
lars was  to  receive  twice  that  amount  from  the  income 
of  the  literary  fund.  Under  this  provision  the  endow- 
ment contributed  during  the  first  year  of  the  law  the 
sum  of  $2400:  to  Tyrrell  County  for  thirteen  districts, 


98      THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 


$520;  to  Cherokee  County  for  sixteen  districts,  $640;  to 
Richmond  County  for  twenty-two  districts,  $880;  and 
to  Macon  County  for  nine  districts,  the  sum  of  $360. 
This  means  that  the  fund  stimulated  local  taxation 
amounting  to  $1200  and  that  $3600  of  public  funds  was 
expended  for  school  support  during  the  first  year  of  the 
school  system. 

During  the  next  twenty  years  the  school  system  pros- 
pered and  continued  to  increase  in  efficiency.  The  fund 
stimulated  local  educational  effort  throughout  all  parts 
of  the  State  with  the  result  that  creditable  expenditures 
were  made  for  public  schools.  The  table  below  exhibits 
the  income  and  the  disbursements  from  the  literary 
fund,  the  amounts  appropriated  by  it  for  schools,  the 
amounts  raised  by  local  taxation,  and  the  total  amounts 
paid  for  public-school  education  between  1841  and 
1861:  — 


Year 

Income 

Disbursements 

For  schools 

Local  taxes 

Total  paid 
/or  schools 

1841 

$121,613.02 

$92,655.67 

$32,836.12 

$16,418.06 

$49,254.18 

1842 

101,323.48 

150,289.59 

65,297.24 

32,648.62 

97,945.86 

1843 

135,453.45 

130,407.76 

46,424.92 

23,212.46 

69,637.38 

1844 

123,009.06 

121,722.65 

117,897.10 

58,948.55 

175,845.65 

1845 

112,246.24 

64,362.51 

61,566.01 

30,783.00 

92,349.01 

1846 

116,431.93 

101,325.73 

96,712.01 

48,350.00 

145,068.01 

1847 

122,556.47 

106,830.81 

96,511.31 

48,255.65 

144,766.96 

1848 

108,342.21 

115,174.81 

101,530.04 

50,765.02 

152,295.04 

1849 

105,388.29 

116,893.42 

99,499.38 

49,724.69 

149,174.07 

1850 

106,301.40 

112,816.28 

107,339.00 

53,669.50 

161,008.50 

1851 

120,255.24 

94,596.41 

81,329.61 

40,664.80 

121,994.41 

1852 

137,380.41 

161,472.33 

144,351.13 

72,175.56 

216,526.69 

1853 

192,250.75 

139,8G5.16 

120,545.63 

60,272.81 

180,818.44 

1854 

196,090.25 

169,983.32 

153,736.79 

76,868.39 

230,605.18 

1855 

14t>,7f>3.35 

202,689.50 

82,688.88 

41,344.44 

124,033.32 

1856 

183,073.00 

193,976.09 

177,479.02 

88,739.51 

266,218.53 

1857 

278,767.87 

300,528.53 

180,751.38 

90,375.69 

271,127.07 

1858 

164,188.44 

204,674.28 

179,087.48 

89,543.74 

268,631.22 

1859 

158,442.04 

209,156.08 

172,051.69 

86,025.84 

258,077.53 

1860 

167,475.12 

216,904.01 

186,054.11 

93,027.05 

279,081.16 

1861 

154,839.37 

150,749.68 

131,886.75 

65,943.38 

197.830.13 

There  is  perhaps  no  more  lamentable    and  melan- 
choly chapter  in  the  history  of  American  education  than 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  99 

the  record  of  the  amazing  carelessness  and  indifference 
with  which  public-school  endowments  have  been  man- 
aged. This  record  is  practically  universal  of  the  pioneer 
days  of  public  educational  effort  when  education  was 
not  considered  a  proper  public  interest.  Public  educa- 
tional funds  were  consequently  not  guarded  with  the 
jealous  care  which  their  importance  and  sanctity  de- 
manded. The  manner  in  which  such  funds  were  man- 
aged is  further  convincing  evidence  of  the  harassing 
conditions  and  opposition  which  confronted  the  public- 
school  movement  in  its  early  days.1 

Few  if  any  States  entirely  escaped  from  the  evils  of 
poor  management  and  often  exploitation  of  their  school 
funds;  even  more  rigid  control  proved  to  be  no  insurance 
of  permanent  endowments  against  loss,  which  was  gen- 
erally appearing.  Almost  every  species  of  violation  of 
public  trust  may  be  seen  in  the  list  of  causes  of  loss  to 
permanent  public-school  funds.  In  some  cases  the  funds 
were  grossly  and  shamefully  diverted  from  the  original 
designs  of  their  founders.  The  history  of  the  school  fund 
of  Missouri  and  of  other  States  is  a  good  illustration  of 
this  form  of  loss.  In  some  cases  the  management  of  the 
funds  was  indifferently  entrusted  to  incompetent  offi- 
cials and  the  result  was  unwise  investments.  This  form 
of  loss  may  be  illustrated  in  almost  every  State.  An- 
other common  cause  of  loss  was  insufficiently  secured 
loans  and  defaulted  interest.  Fully  $700,000  was  lost  to 
the  school  fund  of  Texas  before  1900  through  defaulted 
interest.  Arkansas  likewise  suffered  even  a  greater  loss 
through  practically  worthless  notes  and  bonds;  and 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  and   Missouri  sustained  losses 

1  Sec  Swift,  Public  Permanent  School  Funds  in  the  United  States, 
chaps,  v  and  vi. 


100  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

in  a  similar  manner.  Notes  given  in  Alabama  between 
1837  and  1874  for  lands  belonging  to  the  school  fund 
remained  unpaid  from  thirty  to  seventy  years,  and 
many  of  them  seem  never  to  have  been  paid.  The  poli- 
cies often  employed  in  disposing  of  school-fund  lands 
vary  from  inefficient  and  careless  methods  to  those  of 
questionable  and  clearly  fraudulent  character.  More- 
over, money  derived  from  such  sales  not  infrequently 
was  unsafely  invested. 

Dishonest  management  and  embezzlement  by  officers 
entrusted  with  the  care  of  school  funds  represent  other 
losses  sustained  by  public  education  in  the  United 
States.  Happily  there  are  not  many  gross  examples  of 
this  form  of  loss.  Perhaps  the  most  flagrant  case  is 
found  in  Tennessee  where  the  state  superintendent  of 
schools  between  1837  and  1840  used  the  fund  for  sinister 
private  purposes.  Through  "wild-cat"  bank  schemes, 
loans  to  business  associates,  and  through  real  estate 
operations,  he  succeeded  in  robbing  the  school  fund  of 
more  than  $120,000.  Failures  of  banks  in  which  school 
funds  were  invested,  the  use  of  school  funds  for  paying 
the  current  expenses  of  the  state  government,  and  the 
repudiation  by  the  State  of  debts  due  the  school  funds 
are  still  other  forms  of  wrongs  committed  against  edu- 
cation. In  1848  Vermont  owed  its  school  fund  $224,- 
000,  which  debt  was  repudiated;  and  Colorado  twice  re- 
pudiated an  indebtedness  to  its  school  fund  amounting 
to  nearly  a  half-million  dollars. 

Before  1860  direct  and  permanent  losses  to  the  liter- 
ary fund  in  North  Carolina  were  not  very  considerable, 
but  occasional  carelessness  in  investing  the  funds  in 
securities  of  declining  value  showed  short-sighted  man- 
agement.   Several  misfortunes  befell  the  endowment, 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  101 

however,  during  the  ante-bellum  period.  The  defalca- 
tion of  the  treasurer  of  the  State  in  1827  proved  a  tem- 
porary loss  to  the  fund  of  about  $28,000,  though  the 
Legislature  later  returned  the  amount  with  interest.  A 
decline  in  dividends  from  the  stock  held  by  the  fund  in 
state  banks  somewhat  retarded  the  growth  of  the  fund 
before  1836  and  proved  of  slight  misfortune  to  the  en- 
dowment. During  the  thirties  and  forties  the  fund  was 
now  and  then  used  to  meet  deficits  in  the  public  fund,1 
and  occasionally  it  was  drawn  on  to  meet  interest 
charges  on  state  bonds.  By  1850  more  than  $122,000 
had  been  drawn  from  the  fund  for  deficits  in  the  state 
treasury.  In  1851  the  sum  of  $81,000,  in  1854  the  sum  of 
$152,000,  and  in  1855  the  sum  of  $23,000,  belonging  to 
the  literary  fund,  were  used  for  expenses  of  the  state 
government.  These  amounts  were  finally  returned,  but 
the  frequent  loss  in  interest  charges,  which  were  not 
always  paid,  and  the  manner  of  regarding  the  fund  as 
a  source  of  supply  when  emergency  arose,  are  sufficient 
to  condemn  the  practice  as  unwise  and  unjust. 

With  secession  and  the  opening  of  the  war  in  1861  new 
perils  threatened  the  fund  which  for  many  years  had 
rendered  such  valuable  educational  service.  From  the 
outset  it  was  apparent  that  vigorous  efforts  would  be 
made  to  secure  military  revenues  from  as  many  sources 
as  possible,  and  there  was  fear  that  the  literary  fund 
would  be  appropriated  for  war  purposes.  The  fear  was 
not  ungrounded,  for  various  attempts  were  made  to 
obtain  the  fund  to  carry  on  the  war.  But  through  the 
efforts  of  Dr.  Calvin  H.  Wiley,  who  had  been  state  su- 
perintendent of  public  schools  since  January,  1853,  the 
danger  was  averted  and  the  fund  remained  untouched 
1  See  p.  91. 


102  THE  FUBOC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

for  such  uses.  Dr.  Wiley's  anxiety  for  the  schools  led  him 
in  May,  1861,  to  address  letters  to  the  county  super- 
intendents in  which  he  urged  the  use  of  their  influence 
to  help  secure  the  endowment.  Moreover,  he  obtained 
permission  to  meet  with  the  governor's  council  just 
before  the  Legislature  assembled,  when  the  first  execu- 
tive recommendations  for  the  emergency  were  matured. 
Dr.  Wiley's  description  of  the  meeting  is  worth  giving 
in  full:  — 

The  governor  was  in  feeble  health,  wasting  with  consump- 
tion and  the  weight  of  public  cares,  and  the  meeting  was  at  his 
residence.  The  superintendent  was  kindly  received  and  pa- 
tiently listened  to  on  that  memorable  occasion,  and  then  and 
there  was  fixed  a  policy  which  will  ever  be  honorable  to  the 
State.  It  was  suggested  that  the  school  fund  of  over  $2,000,000 
would  seem  large  to  some,  and  a  ready  means  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war  and  to  save  taxation,  and  that  under  these 
plausible  pretexts  the  slumbering  opposition  to  the  schools 
would  unite  short-sighted  friends,  and  by  a  temporary  sus- 
pension aim  to  destroy  them  forever.  And  it  was  argued  that 
though  the  fund  was,  indeed,  a  large  one,  in  one  sense,  it  was 
but  an  inconsiderable  item  in  the  expenses  about  to  be  in- 
curred, and  that  if  we  were  able  to  engage  in  hostilities  at  all 
we  were  able  to  do  without  it;  that  if  it  was  desired  to  popu- 
larize the  war  it  would  be  most  injudicious  to  begin  it  by  the 
suspension  of  a  system  which  was  the  poor  man's  life,  and 
which  would  be  so  essential  to  the  orphans  of  the  soldiers  called 
to  surrender  their  lives  for  the  common  good ;  and  now,  when 
it  was  aimed  to  vindicate  Southern  civilization  before  the 
world,  it  would  surely  be  an  unwise  step  to  begin  by  the  volun- 
tary destruction  of  an  efficient  system  of  popular  instruction; 
that  no  people  could  or  would  be  free  who  were  unable  or  un- 
willing to  educate  their  children.  True  independence  must  be 
based  on  moral  character  and  on  popular  intelligence  and 
industrial  development,  and  thus  in  the  momentous  struggle 
about  to  begin  it  would  impart  confidence  to  the  public  mind 
to  see  the  State  enter  the  contest  with  the  apparent  assurance 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  103 

that  her  interior  interests  were  not  endangered  by  her  course; 
that  war  under  any  circumstances  was  destructive  for  the  time, 
and  that  the  pending  contest  might  be  long  and  exhausting; 
and  that  it  was  the  part  of  wisdom  and  patriotism  so  to  act 
that  the  end  should  find  the  fewest  possible  desolations  to  be 
repaired,  and  no  permanent  weakening  of  the  elements  of 
social  elevation.  These  considerations  prevailed,  and  the 
executive  power  of  the  State,  represented  by  the  governor 
and  his  council,  entered  into  an  informal  but  solemn  agree- 
ment with  the  superintendent  of  common  schools  to  oppose, 
with  him,  all  attempts  to  seize  the  fund  for  war  purposes,  or 
to  suspend  the  schools,  and  the  compact  was  faithfully  ob- 
served by  Governor  Ellis  and  his  successors  during  the  war 
and  by  their  constitutional  advisers.1 

In  November,  1861,  the  North  Carolina  Educational 
Association,  which  was  organized  several  years  before, 
memorialized  the  state  convention,  asking  that  by  con- 
stitutional amendment  the  proceeds  of  the  endowment 
"  be  sacredly  and  permanently  secured  to  their  original 
purposes."  Meantime,  the  superintendent  enlisted  the 
influence  of  many  of  the  county  boards  of  education, 
and  the  attempt  to  appropriate  the  fund  for  military 
purposes  was  so  bitterly  fought  that  it  was  finally  de- 
feated. Thus  the  literary  fund  was  saved  to  its  original 
purposes.  In  September,  1861,  however,  an  act  was 
passed  which  repealed  that  section  of  the  code  which 
required  the  county  courts  to  levy  and  collect  school 
taxes.  But  the  act  was  not  to  apply  "  to  those  counties 
where  the  justices,  a  majority  being  present,  shall  elect 
to  lay  such  a  tax."  Thus  released  from  the  legal  require- 
ment to  levy  taxes  for  schools,  some  of  the  counties 
voted  to  use  the  money  for  military  purposes,  while 
others  discontinued  school  support  until  the  close  of  the 

1  Weeks,  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the  Com' 
mon  Schools  of  North  Carolina. 


104  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

war.  It  seems  that  no  distribution  was  made  from  the 
fund  for  school  support  after  1860  until  1862.  In  Octo- 
ber of  that  year  the  sum  of  $100,000  was  distributed; 
"and  from  evidence  of  a  later  date  it  seems  that  the  in- 
come of  the  fund  was  temporarily  used  to  meet  the 
financial  crisis  brought  about  by  the  war."  x  But  the 
schools  did  not  entirely  collapse  until  1866. 

Governor  Vance  appointed  new  trustees  for  the  liter- 
ary fund  in  1862,  but  in  a  short  time  it  seemed  difficult 
to  secure  meetings  of  the  board,  and  in  1863  the  gov- 
ernor and  one  other  member  took  entire  charge  of  the 
management  of  the  investments.  Dr.  Wiley  had  all  along 
urged  the  trustees  to  make  no  change  in  the  investments 
of  the  fund,  and  this  policy  was  adopted  and  in  the 
main  followed  throughout  the  war.  The  fund  was,  there- 
fore, not  heavily  invested  in  Confederate  securities;  but 
it  was  invested  very  largely  in  stock  in  banks  which  had 
invested  in  such  securities;  and  in  the  wreck  which  came 
to  the  banking  system  of  the  State  in  1865,  this  part  of 
the  literary  fund  was  largely  lost.  Moreover,  it  appears 
that  about  $650,000  was  invested  in  state  bonds,  and 
the  repudiation  of  the  war  debt  by  the  state  conven- 
tion in  1865  destroyed  this  investment.  The  railroad 
stock  and  stock  in  the  navigation  companies  were  also 
practically  without  value.  In  1866  the  total  income  from 
the  literary  fund  was  only  $776.  Several  plans  were 
suggested  by  Dr.  Wiley  and  other  influential  friends  of 
education  by  which  the  fund  could  be  reestablished  and 
the  schools  revived,  but  all  appeals  were  without  effect. 

In  1869  all  the  railroad  stock  belonging  to  the  fund 
and  hitherto  valued  at  $600,000  was  sold  for  $148,000. 
The  stock  in  the  Cape  Fear  Navigation  Company, 
1  Sec  Boyd,  op.  cit. 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  105 

valued  at  $32,500,  was  sold  for  $3250,  or  for  ten  cents  on 
the  dollar.  Bank  stocks  also  belonging  to  the  fund,  and 
representing  an  investment  of  more  than  $1,000,000, 
was  worthless.  The  money  received  from  the  sale  of  the 
railroad  stock  was  invested  in  special  tax  bonds  of  the 
State  and  these  were  soon  repudiated.  The  total  loss  of 
the  fund,  once  so  large  and  valuable,  was  nearly  $2,500,- 
000.  From  this  time  forward  any  extensive  public- 
school  support  by  means  of  permanent  endowments  was 
largely  a  matter  of  history  in  North  Carolina. 

Although  the  legal  existence  of  the  fund  created  in  1825 
practically  ended  with  the  adoption  in  1868  of  a  new  con- 
stitution, the  fourth  section  of  article  nine  of  that  consti- 
tution provided  for  an  "irreducible"  fund  as  follows:  — 

The  proceeds  of  all  lands  that  have  been,  or  hereafter  may 
be,  granted  by  the  United  States  to  this  State,  and  not  other- 
wise specially  appropriated  by  the  United  States  or  heretofore 
by  this  State;  also,  all  moneys,  stocks,  bonds,  and  other  prop- 
erty now  belonging  to  any  fund  for  purposes  of  education; 
also,  the  net  proceeds  that  may  accrue  to  the  State  from  sales 
of  estrays,  or  from  fines,  penalties,  and  forfeitures;  also,  the 
proceeds  of  all  sales  of  the  swamp  lands  belonging  to  the 
State;  also,  all  money  that  shall  be  paid  as  an  equivalent  for 
exemption  from  military  duty;  also,  all  grants,  gifts,  or  devises 
that  may  hereafter  be  made  to  this  State,  and  not  otherwise 
appropriated  by  the  grant,  gift,  or  devise,  shall  be  securely 
invested  and  sacredly  preserved  as  an  irreducible  educational 
fund,  the  annual  income  of  which,  together  with  so  much  of 
the  ordinary  revenue  of  the  State  as  may  be  necessary,  shall 
be  faithfully  appropriated  for  establishing  and  perfecting  in 
this  State  a  system  of  free  public  schools,  and  for  no  other 
purposes  or  uses  whatsoever. 

With  the  return  of  home  rule  in  1876  a  new  constitu- 
tion was  framed  which  went  into  effect  January  1,  1877. 
Section  four  of  article  nine  provided :  — 


106    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  proceeds  of  all  lands  that  have  been  or  hereafter  may 
be  granted  by  the  United  States  to  this  State,  or  not  otherwise 
appropriated  by  this  State  or  the  United  States;  also,  all 
moneys,  stocks,  bonds,  and  other  property,  now  belonging  to 
any  state  fund  for  purposes  of  education;  also,  the  net  pro- 
ceeds of  all  sales  of  the  swamp  lands  belonging  to  the  State, 
and  all  other  grants,  gifts,  or  devises,  that  have  been  or  here- 
after may  be  made  to  this  State,  and  not  otherwise  appropri- 
ated by  the  State,  or  by  the  term  of  the  grant,  gift,  or  devise, 
shall  be  paid  into  the  state  treasury;  and,  together  with  so 
much  of  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the  State  as  may  be  by  law 
set  apart  for  that  purpose,  shall  be  faithfully  appropriated  for 
establishing  and  maintaining  in  this  State  a  system  of  free 
public  schools,  and  for  no  other  uses  or  purposes  whatsoever. 

Another  section  of  the  same  article  provided  that  the 

net  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  estrays;  also,  the  clear  proceeds 
of  all  penalties  and  forfeitures,  and  of  all  fines  collected  in  the, 
several  counties  for  any  breach  of  the  penal  or  military  laws  of 
the  State;  and  all  moneys  which  shall  be  paid  by  persons  as  an 
equivalent  for  exemption  from  military  duty,  shall  belong  to 
and  remain  in  the  several  counties,  and  shall  be  faithfully 
appropriated  for  establishing  and  maintaining  free  public 
schools  in  the  several  counties  of  this  State:  Provided,  that  the 
amount  collected  in  each  county  shall  be  annually  reported  to 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

By  the  constitution  of  1868  and  that  of  1876  a  new 
basis  was  made  for  the  principal  support  of  schools. 
State  taxation,  instead  of  the  income  from  a  permanent 
public  endowment,  was  henceforth  to  be  the  chief  means 
of  supporting  the  public  free  schools  of  the  State. 

From  1870  to  1903  the  principal  sources  of  increase  of 
the  fund  provided  for  in  the  constitution  were  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  federal  land  grants  not  already  appropri- 
ated by  the  United  States  or  the  States;  the  proceeds  of 
the  sales  of  swamp  lands;  and  grants,  gifts,  and  devises 
made  to  the  State  and  not  otherwise  appropriated.  As 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  107 

late  as  1889  the  entries  from  public  lands  averaged  only 
about  $5000  a  year,  and  were  gradually  becoming  less, 
and  the  income  from  the  swamp  lands  was  not  consider- 
able. Occasionally  some  of  these  lands  were  sold,  but 
the  prices  received  were  small  and  the  sums  realized 
were  of  but  little  help  in  swelling  the  sources  of  school 
support.  At  the  same  time  the  fund  owned  North  Caro- 
lina four  per  cent  bonds,  amounting  to  $99,250,  from 
which  there  was  an  annual  interest  income  of  $3970. 
The  total  annual  income  from  the  holdings  and  sources 
of  the  fund  was  between  $8000  and  $10,000,  but  a  dis- 
tribution of  it  among  the  counties  of  the  State  was  not 
made  every  year,  as  the  school  law  provided.  Whenever, 
in  the  judgment  of  the  state  authorities,  there  was  a 
sufficient  accumulation  to  justify  a  distribution,  the 
fund  was  distributed  for  general  school  purposes  on  the 
basis  of  school  population  in  the  various  counties.  In 
1889  the  appropriation  annually  averaged  about  two 
cents  per  pupil  of  school  age.  Three  years  later  the  per- 
manent fund  amounted  to  $154,250.  All  of  this  yielded 
four  per  cent  interest  except  $2000  which  bore  six  per 
cent. 

In  1903  there  was  in  the  hands  of  the  state  treasurer 
a  fund  of  nearly  $200,000  belonging  to  the  state  board  of 
education,  which  had  been  accumulating  for  several 
years  from  the  sale  of  swamp  lands.  About  $150,000  of 
this  was  in  state  bonds  which  yielded  an  annual  revenue 
of  four  per  cent  interest,  but  under  the  law  only  the 
interest  on  it  could  be  used  for  educational  purposes. 
From  time  to  time  this  had  been  apportioned  to  the 
schools  on  the  basis  of  school  population,  but  the 
amounts  were  always  so  small  that  the  distribution  was 
scarcely  felt.  At  its  session  in  that  year,  Superintendent 


108    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

J.  Y.  Joyner  recommended  to  the  Legislature  that  this 
fund  be  converted  into  a  permanent  loan  fund  as  "a 
practical  plan  of  securing  in  a  reasonable  time  a  com- 
fortable and  respectable  schoolhouse  in  every  rural 
district  in  the  State.  .  .  . 

Addressing  the  Legislature,  Dr.  Joyner  said:  — 

The  use  of  this  sacred  fund  for  any  temporary  purpose 
would,  as  I  see  it,  be  a  crime  against  past,  present,  and  future 
generations.  ...  As  long  asdt  remains  idle  in  the  hands  of  the 
treasurer  it  will  be  a  constant  temptation  to  every  General 
Assembly  that  happens  to  find  a  deficit  that  must  be  met.  If 
used  for  any  temporary  purpose  or  to  meet  any  temporary 
deficit,  it  will,  in  my  opinion,  be  lost  forever  to  the  children  of 
the  State.  Everybody  knows  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  State 
to  repay  money  that  it  borrows  from  itself. 

The  House  and  Senate  Joint  Committee  on  Education 
endorsed  the  recommendation  of  the  State  Superintend- 
ent, with  the  result  that  a  special  act  was  passed  direct- 
ing that  all  funds  derived  before  that  time  from  the 
sources  enumerated  in  the  constitution  (section  four  of 
article  nine),  and  all  funds  hereafter  so  derived,  together 
with  the  interest  on  such  funds,  be  set  apart'  as  a  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  school  fund  to  be  known  as  the  "State 
Literary  Fund,"  to  be  used  exclusively  as  a  means  of 
building  and  improving  public  schoolhouses,  under  rules 
and  regulations  to  be  adopted  by  the  state  board  of 
education. 

Under  the  rules  adopted  for  regulating  the  loans  for 
building  schoolhouses,  only  half  of  the  cost  of  a  new 
house  or  of  the  improvement  of  an  old  one  was  to  be  lent 
to  any  one  school  district.  Districts  with  a  school  popu- 
lation of  less  than  sixty-five  could  not  receive  aid  unless 
"sparsity  of  population'*  or  " unsurmoun table  natural 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  109 

barriers"  made  such  aid  absolutely  necessary.  Prefer- 
ence was  given  first  to  needy  rural  communities  and  to 
towns  of  less  than  one  thousand  inhabitants;  then  to 
similar  communities  which  were  supporting  their  schools 
by  local  taxation;  next  to  those  communities  which  as- 
sisted themselves  by  private  subscriptions;  and  the  last 
class  of  districts  to  be  aided  by  the  fund  were  the  large 
ones  formed  by  the  consolidation  of  smaller  districts. 
The  loans  were  to  be  made  by  the  state  board  to  the 
county  board  of  education,  payable  in  ten  annual  in- 
stallments, at  four  per  cent  interest,  and  were  to  be  se- 
cured by  notes  of  the  county  board  which  were  to  be 
deposited  with  the  state  treasurer.  Moreover,  the  loans 
became  a  lien  upon  the  total  school  funds  of  the  county, 
and  the  literary  fund  was  further  protected  by  regula- 
tions which  authorized  the  state  treasurer,  whenever 
necessary,  to  deduct,  from  the  funds  due  any  county 
from  special  state  appropriations  for  school  purposes, 
an  amount  sufficient  to  pay  any  annual  installment  due 
the  literary  fund  by  any  county.  The  county  board  was 
likewise  similarly  secured  against  default  on  the  part  of 
local  districts.  All  houses  built  by  aid  from  the  fund 
were  required  to  be  constructed  in  strict  accordance  with 
plans  approved  by  the  state  school  authorities;  and  all 
counties  and  districts  were  required  to  observe  strictly 
the  rules  and  regulations  governing  the  management  of 
the  loans. 

The  first  loans  from  the  fund  were  made  in  August, 
1903.  Up  to  December,  1904,  loans  amounting  to 
$120,580  were  made  to  assist  325  districts  in  70  counties 
of  the  State.  The  new  schoolhouses  built  during  this 
time  through  assistance  from  the  fund  numbered  288. 
The  majority  of  the  districts  aided  were  in  distinctly 


110    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH   CAROLINA 

rural  communities  or  in  village  communities  of  less  than 
500  inhabitants.  The  benefits  derived  from  the  fund 
had  already  exceeded  the  expectations  of  its  heartiest 
supporters.  The  value  of  the  old  buildings  in  the  com- 
munities assisted  was  placed  at  $26,092,  and  of  the  new 
ones  erected  by  aid  of  the  fund  at  $297,540.  It  was  early 
demonstrated  that,  under  wise  administration,  it  was 
possible  "to  secure  during  the  present  generation  a 
respectable,  comfortable,  well-equipped  public  school- 
house  in  every  district  of  reasonable  size  in  the  State." 
From  August  10,  1903,  to  June  30,  1908,  the  sum  of 
$390,985.50  was  lent  to  86  counties.  The  districts  aided 
during  this  period  numbered  871,  and  787  new  houses, 
valued  at  $975,293.30,  were  built.  The  old  houses  thus 
replaced  were  valued  at  only  $144,564.50.  For  the  bien- 
nial period  ending  June  30,  1910,  the  sum  of  $122,000 
was  lent  to  65  counties  for  improving  houses  valued  at 
$290,495.  For  the  biennial  period  ending  June  30, 1914, 
the  total  amount  of  loans  made  from  the  literary  fund 
for  purposes  of  building  or  improving  schoolhouses  was 
$207,447,  which  was  an  increase  of  more  than  $42,000 
over  the  biennial  period  which  ended  June  30,  1912. 
Seventy-nine  counties  were  aided  by  the  fund  between 
July  1,  1912,  and  June  30,  1914,  and  the  total  value  of 
the  houses  built  or  improved  was  $674,842.  The  total 
amount  of  loans  from  the  fund  between  1903  and  1914 
was  $896,022.50.  Ninety-eight  counties  had  been  as- 
sisted during  this  time  in  building  or  improving  houses 
valued  at  $2,411,500.  One  fifth  of  all  the  schoolhouses 
in  the  State  have  been  built  or  improved  by  the  aid  of 
the  fund  created  by  the  act  of  1903. 


THE  LITERARY  FUND  111 


REFERENCES 

Journals  of  the  House  and  Senate;  Public  Laws  of  North 
Carolina;  legislative  documents;  Coon,  Public  Education  in 
North  Carolina,  1790-18 W,  a  Documentary  History;  Weeks, 
Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the  Common 
Schools  of  North  Carolina;  Smith,  History  of  Education  in 
North  Carolina;  Swift,  Permanent  Public  School  Funds  in  the 
United  States;  Report,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, 1892-93,  vol.  2;  Boyd,  "The  Finances  of  the  North 
Carolina  Literary  Fund,"  in  South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  July  and 
October,  1914;  Biennial  Reports,  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  1904-14;  Bourne,  History  of  the  Surplus 
Revenue  of  1837;  Blackmar,  The  History  of  Federal  and  State 
Aid  to  Higher  Education  in  the  United  States. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  How  did  the  creation  of  public-school  funds  aid  the 
establishment  of  school  systems? 

2.  What  was  the  purpose  of  creating  public-school  funds? 

3.  What  was  the  principle  on  which  such  funds  were  usually 
established? 

4.  How  did  permanent  public-school  funds  aid  local  taxa- 
tion? 

5.  What  were  the  sources  of  the  fund  in  North  Carolina? 
How  did  they  compare  with  the  sources  of  similar  funds 
in  other  States? 

6.  How  did  the  principle  of  distributing  the  income  of  the 
fund  compare  with  the  principle  of  distribution  used  in 
other  States? 

7.  How  did  the  principle  of  distributing  the  income  of  the 
fund  compare  with  the  principle  on  which  the  present 
fund  is  used? 

8.  Why  were  the  early  public-school  funds  greatly  mis- 
managed? How  did  careless  management  reflect  the 
public  attitude  toward  public  education? 

9.  How  was  North  Carolina's  ante-bellum  literary  fund 
lost? 


112    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

10.  How  did  the  distribution  of  the  surplus  revenue  of  the 
federal  government  in  1837  aid  public  education  in  North 
Carolina? 

11.  How  has  the  state  literary  fund  aided  education  in 
your  county?  How  many  schoolhouses  have  been  built 
or  improved  in  your  county  by  aid  from  this  fund? 


CHAPTER  VII 

GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT  (1825-1837) 

With  the  creation  of  a  school  fund  in  1825  the  initial 
step  was  taken  by  the  Legislature  in  obedience  to  the 
constitutional  mandate  to  make  provision  for  schools. 
Two  reasons  may  be  seen  for  this  long  delay.  The  belief 
was  prevalent  that  current  taxation  for  educational  pur- 
poses would  meet  popular  opposition,  on  the  theory 
that  education  was  not  a  proper  function  of  government; 
and  the  element  of  charity  read  into  state  aid  of  schools 
was  considered  humiliating  to  those  who  accepted  its 
benefits.  These  notions  caused  the  State  to  hang  back 
from  any  definite  step  by  which  common  schools  could 
be  established  by  state  taxation.  Hostility  to  increased 
taxation  was  intense,  and  the  passage  of  a  measure  call- 
ing for  local  or  county  taxation  for  school  support  would 
have  been  impossible.  If  schools  were  to  be  created  pro- 
vision for  their  maintenance  had  to  be  sought  in  other 
ways  than  by  taxation,  and  the  creation  of  a  permanent 
public  fund  from  the  income  of  which  schools  were  to 
receive  aid  seemed  the  only  satisfactory  plan.  This 
method  of  school  support  had  already  been  adopted  in 
several  other  States. 

The  fund  grew  slowly  at  first  and  was  naturally  for 
several  years  inadequate  to  any  considerable  effectual 
relief  of  the  need  for  increased  educational  facilities.  At 
the  next  session  of  the  Legislature  several  measures  were 
introduced  which  looked  to  an  increase  in  the  fund,  but 


114  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

all  of  them  finally  failed.  At  that  time  the  State  owned 
more  than  a  half-million  dollars  in  bank  stock  alone, 
only  about  one  fifth  of  which  was  the  property  of  the 
school  fund.  But  all  efforts  to  transfer  the  balance  to  the 
fund  for  school  support  failed.  Moreover,  other  educa- 
tional measures  were  defeated.  A  bill  to  establish  a  col- 
lege, one  department  of  which  was  to  train  teachers,  and 
a  bill  to  aid  Sunday  schools  by  appropriating  a  small 
amount  to  those  which  would  teach  indigent  children  to 
read,  both  met  defeat  at  this  session.  The  following 
year  the  first  report  of  the  literary  board  recommended 
the  immediate  establishment  of  schools  and  an  increase 
of  the  fund,  but  no  action  was  taken. 

No  legislation  of  especial  educational  importance  was 
enacted  during  the  next  ten  years,  though  the  subject 
continued  to  be  agitated  and  repeated  efforts  were  made 
to  secure  educational  improvement.  As  a  rule  the  mes- 
sages of  the  governors  continued  to  recommend  some 
legislative  action  in  behalf  of  schools,  and  many  plans 
were  offered  as  a  solution  of  the  peculiar  problem  which 
the  State  was  thought  to  be  facing.  But  practically  all 
efforts  and  plans  failed.  Failure  marked  the  end  of  a 
movement  in  1827  to  promote  the  education  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb  children  of  the  State;  no  legislative  attention 
was  given  to  a  plan  proposed  in  1828  to  provide  for  the 
training  of  teachers  at  the  state  university;  and  the 
Senate  at  the  same  session  defeated  a  bill  providing  for 
the  education  of  the  poor  children  of  the  State.  Similar 
bills  met  the  same  fate  in  1829  and  again  in  1830.  And 
efforts  to  ascertain  the  number  of  children  in  the  State 
without  educational  facilities  and  to  increase  the  liter- 
ary fund  were  also  defeated  in  1830. 

In  1829  Governor  Owen  accompanied  his  message  to 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       115 

the  Legislature  with  a  plan  for  primary  schools  which 
had  been  submitted  to  him  by  Charles  R.  Kenney,  who 
had  observed  the  practical  operation  of  schools  in  other 
sections  of  the  country.  In  brief,  the  plan  stated  that 
North  Carolina  had  as  many  college  graduates  as  any 
other  State  in  the  Union  except  South  Carolina,  but  was 
deficient  in  primary  educational  facilities,  and  proposed 
to  divide  the  counties  into  districts  and  to  give  them 
power  to  raise  by  taxation  money  sufficient  to  build 
schoolhouses  and  maintain  a  school  for  four  months 
each  year.  The  plan  also  recommended  an  examination 
of  teachers  on  the  ground  that  their  characters  were 
"proverbially  and  justly  bad"  and  usually  consisted  of 
men  "  unfit  for  anything  else."  A  proper  selection  would 
remedy  this  evil.  The  custom  used  in  New  England  of 
employing  women  teachers  in  the  summer  was  also  pro- 
posed. The  excellencies  of  the  plan  were  obvious.  Five 
years  later  Hugh  McQueen,  a  member  of  the  Senate 
from  Chatham  County,  introduced  a  bill  which  called 
for  the  collection  of  educational  statistics  and  a  transfer 
to  school  support  of  certain  taxes  levied  for  the  support 
of  the  poor  and  also  a  tax  on  certain  estates.  Nothing 
came  of  either  of  the  plans.  McQueen's  bill,  however, 
attracted  some  legislative  attention  as  well  as  newspaper 
comment.  But  its  late  introduction  and  the  details  of 
the  bill  meant  its  defeat. 

The  literary  fund  for  many  years  after  its  creation 
was  considered  insufficient  to  render  much  aid  in  sup- 
port of  a  general  system  of  schools,  and  there  appeared 
a  willingness  to  allow  it  to  accumulate  as  best  it  could 
without  the  addition  of  sources  of  income,  which  was 
constantly  urged. 

During  these  years  of  fruitless  effort  to  promote  edu- 


116    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

cation  the  population  of  the  State  was  increasing,  with 
the  result  that  the  children  of  the  masses  were  growing 
up  in  ignorance.  There  seemed  to  be  no  voice  to  speak 
out  of  the  wilderness  and  to  point  the  way  to  correct 
educational  action.  Sentiment  for  and  against  schools 
and  the  means  of  education  was  also  developing  and  ex- 
pressing itself.  Surprise  was  frequently  expressed  in  the 
press  of  the  State  and  elsewhere 

that  a  subject  so  interesting  to  every  philanthropist,  so  super- 
latively important  in  a  political  point  of  view,  and  so  loudly 
and  imperiously  demanded  by  existing  circumstances  in  our 
State,  should  have  continued  so  long  without  attracting  the 
special  attention  and  engaging  the  active  exertions  of  our  Leg- 
islature. .  .  .  The  dullness  and  incapacity  which  is  permitted  to 
enter  our  legislative  hall,  and  disgraces  us  even  in  the  national 
representation  .  .  .  evince  most  unequivocally  the  mental  de- 
basement of  a  large  portion  of  our  population. 

The  education  of  the  masses  was  believed  to  be  the 
only  correct  basis  of  agricultural  and  commercial  pros- 
perity and  the  surest  guaranty  of  liberty.  Another 
writer  likewise  censured  the  Legislature  for  spending  its 
time  "upon  ephemeral  objects"  to  the  neglect  of  the 
"very  salvation  of  the  Republic.,,  Still  another  declared 
that  the  Legislature  was  responsible  for  the 

chilling  and  sluggish  apathy  that  penetrates  into  and  pervades 
all  our  public  measures  for  improvement.  .  .  .  Our  physical, 
moral,  and  intellectual  powers  have  never  been  unfolded,  and 
never  will  be,  until  the  people  are  redeemed  by  education  from 
the  state  of  ignorance  to  which  they  have  been  doomed  by  our 
penny-saving  legislators.  All  the  draw-backs  of  this  State  may 
be  traced  to  this  muddy  source  —  want  of  general  knowledge. 

Dr.  Joseph  Caldwell,  president  of  the  state  university, 
said,  in  an  address  before  a  convention  in  Raleigh  in 
1829,  that  the  State  was  three  centuries  behind  in  educa- 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT        117 

tion,  the  chief  cause  of  which  he  declared  to  be  the 
"fatal  delusion "  that  "taxation  is  contrary  to  the  genius 
of  a  republican  government."  The  next  year  Governor 
Owen  attacked  the  State's  so-called  policy  of  economy 
as  fit  only  to  keep  "  the  poor  in  ignorance  and  the  State 
in  poverty."  In  1833  Governor  Swain  in  his  message 
said :  — 

The  apathy  which  has  pervaded  the  legislation  of  half  a 
century  is  most  strikingly  exhibited  by  the  fact,  that  the  mere 
expenses  of  the  General  Assembly  have  ordinarily  exceeded 
the  aggregate  expenditures  of  all  the  other  departments  of  the 
government,  united  to  the  appropriations  which  have  been 
made  for  the  purpose  of  internal  improvements. 

Two  years  later  the  Legislature  was  costing  nearly 
half  as  much  as  the  actual  expenses  of  the  state  govern- 
ment. Governor  Swain  declared  in  his  message  in 
1835:  — 

The  history  of  our  state  legislation,  during  the  first  half- 
century  of  our  political  existence,  will  exhibit  little  more  to 
posterity  than  the  annual  imposition  of  taxes  amounting  to  less 
than  a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  one  half  of  which  constituted 
the  reward  of  the  legislative  bodies  by  which  they  were  levied, 
while  the  remainder  was  applied  to  sustain  the  train  of  officers 
who  superintend  the  machinery  of  government.  The  establish- 
ment of  schools  for  the  convenient  instruction  of  youth,  and 
the  development  and  improvement  of  our  internal  resources 
by  means  beyond  the  reach  of  individual  enterprise,  will  seem 
scarcely  to  have  been  regarded  as  proper  objects  of  legislative 


1  The  average  annual  expense  of  the  Legislature  during  the  early 
years  of  statehood  was  $15,000.  In  1830  it  was  $40,000,  and  three 
years  later  it  was  $42,000.  In  this  year  the  total  expenses  of  the  State 
were  estimated  at  $160,000  with  available  resources  amounting  to  only 
$140,000. 


118    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

■  But  sentiment  was  not  altogether  in  favor  of  schools 
and  internal  improvements;  occasionally  a  voice  was 
raised  against  them.  An  open  letter  on  the  subject,  ad- 
dressed to  the  members  of  the  Legislature  just  before 
the  meeting  of  that  body  in  1829,  and  published  in  the 
Raleigh  Register  contained  the  arguments  typical  of  the 
opposition :  — 

You  will  probably  be  asked,  gentlemen,  to  render  some  little 
assistance  to  the  university  of  our  State.  But  I  hope  you  will 
strenuously  refuse  to  do  this  likewise.  It  is  respectfully  sub- 
mitted to  the  wisdom  above  mentioned,  whether  our  good  old- 
field  schools  are  not  abundantly  sufficient  for  all  our  necessi- 
ties. Our  fathers  and  mothers  jogged  along  uncomplainingly 
without  colleges;  and  long  experience  proves  them  to  be  very 
expensive  things.  The  university  has  already  cost  the  people 
not  a  little;  and  the  good  it  has  accomplished  thus  far  is  ex- 
tremely doubtful;  if  I  might  not  rather  allege  it  to  have  been 
productive  of  mischief.  College  learned  persons  give  them- 
selves great  airs,  are  proud,  and  the  fewer  of  them  we  have 
amongst  us  the  better.  I  have  long  been  of  the  opinion,  and 
trust  you  will  join  me  in  it,  that  establishments  of  this  kind  are 
aristocratical  in  their  nature,  and  evidently  opposed  to  the 
plain,  simple,  honest,  matter-of-fact  republicanism  which 
ought  to  flourish  among  us.  The  branches  of  learning  culti- 
vated in  them  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  lofty,  arrogant,  and 
useless  sort.  Who  wants  Latin  and  Greek  and  abstruse  mathe- 
matics in  these  times  and  in  a  country  like  this?  Might  we  not 
as  well  patronize  alchemy,  astrology,  heraldry,  and  the  black 
art?  ...  In  the  third  place,  it  is  possible,  but  not  very  likely,  I 
confess,  that  you  may  be  solicited  to  take  some  steps  with 
regard  to  the  establishment  among  us  of  common  schools. 
Should  so  ridiculous  a  measure  be  propounded  to  you,  you  will 
unquestionably,  for  your  own  interest,  as  well  as  that  of  your 
constitutents,  treat  it  with  the  same  contemptuous  neglect 
which  it  has  ever  met  with  heretofore.  Common  schools  in- 
deed! Money  is  very  scarce,  and  the  times  are  unusually  hard. 
Why  was  such  a  matter  never  broached  in  better  and  more 
prosperous  days?  Gentlemen,  it  appears  to  me  that  schools  are 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT        119 

sufficiently  plenty,  and  that  the  people  have  no  desire  they 
should  be  increased.  Those  now  in  operation  are  not  all  filled, 
and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  they  are  productive  of  much  real 
benefit.  Would  it  not  redound  as  much  to  the  advantage  of 
young  persons,  and  to  the  honor  of  the  State,  if  they  should 
pass  their  days  in  the  cotton  patch,  or  at  the  plow,  or  in  the 
cornfield,  instead  of  being  mewed  up  in  a  schoolhouse,  where 
they  are  earning  nothing?  Such  an  ado  as  is  made  in  these 
times  about  education,  surely  was  never  heard  of  before.  Gen- 
tlemen, I  hope  you  do  not  conceive  it  at  all  necessary,  that 
everybody  should  be  able  to  read,  write,  and  cipher.  If  one  is 
to  keep  a  store  or  a  school,  or  to  be  a  lawyer  or  physician,  such 
branches  may,  perhaps,  be  taught  him;  though  I  do  not  look 
upon  them  as  by  any  means  indispensable:  but  if  he  is  to  be  a 
plain  farmer,  or  a  mechanic,  they  are  of  no  manner  of  use,  but 
rather  a  detriment.  There  need  no  arguments  to  make  clear 
so  self-evident  a  proposition.  Should  schools  be  established  by 
law,  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  as  at  the  North,  our  taxes  must 
be  considerably  increased,  possibly  to  the  amount  of  one  per 
cent  and  sixpence  on  a  poll ;  and  I  will  ask  any  prudent,  sane, 
saving  man  if  he  desires  his  taxes  to  be  higher?  .  .  . 

You  will  doubtless  be  told  that  our  State  is  far  behind  her 
sistere  in  things  of  this  sort  —  and  what  does  this  prove? 
Merely,  that  other  States  are  before  us;  which  is  their  affair, 
and  not  ours.  We  are  able  to  govern  ourselves  without  refer- 
ence to  other  members  of  the  Confederation;  and  thus  are  we 
perfectly  independent.  We  shall  always  have  reason  enough 
to  crow  over  them,  while  we  have  power  to  say,  as  I  hope  we 
may  ever  have,  that  our  taxes  are  lighter  than  theirs. 


Evidence  of  growing  sentiment  in  favor  of  improve- 
ment in  educational  conditions  may  be  seen  in  the 
movement  to  organize  a  teachers*  association  in  the 
State  in  1830.  A  letter,  signed  by  "Psedophilus"  and 
addressed  to  "the  friends  of  education  and  the  cause  of 
literature  in  North  Carolina,"  was  published  in  the 
Raleigh  Register  in  July  of  that  year.  The  letter  pointed 
out  the  advantages  offered  by  an  organization  of  the 


120    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

teachers  of  the  State,  and  suggested  that  a  meeting  be 
called  in  Raleigh  the  following  December.  No  meeting 
was  held,  however,  at  that  time.  The  following  May 
the  same  paper  referred  to  the  preliminary  call  of  the 
previous  year  and  called  attention  to  conventions  for 
educational  advancement  which  had  been  held  in  other 
States.  It  also  stated  that  "a  number  of  gentlemen 
desirous  of  promoting  the  general  education  of  the  peo- 
ple of  this  State,  are  solicitous  of  again  calling  the  atten- 
tion of  the  friends  of  education,  and  of  teachers  gener- 
ally, to  this  subject,  and  for  this  purpose,  propose  to 
hold  a  convention  at  Chapel  Hill,  on  the  day  before  the 
ensuing  commencement  of  our  university."  The  meet- 
ing was  held  at  that  time  and  an  organization  formed, 
known  as  "The  North  Carolina  Institute  of  Education." 
A  meeting  was  held  in  1832,  but  its  proceedings  are  no 
longer  extant  and  it  is  not  known  what  work  was  under- 
taken at  that  time.  The  last  meeting  was  held  in  1833 
when  several  subjects  of  importance  were  scheduled  for 
consideration,  among  them  being  a  system  of  elemen- 
tary schools  for  the  State.  But  no  further  meeting  of  the 
organization  was  held. 

The  year  1832  may  be  taken  as  another  landmark  in 
the  educational  history  of  the  State.  In  that  year  ap- 
peared the  well-known  letters  on  popular  education,  ad- 
dressed to  the  people  of  the  State,  by  Dr.  Joseph  Cald- 
well, president  of  the  state  university.  These  letters, 
eleven  in  number,  were  the  result  of  the  work  of  a 
standing  committee  appointed  by  the  Legislature  sev- 
eral years  before  for  the  purpose  of  studying  conditions 
in  the  State  with  a  view  to  improvement.  The  commit- 
tee never  met;  but  the  letters  of  Caldwell  embodied  his 
views  on  the  subject  of  education.  The  substance  of  the 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT        121 

letters  appeared  in  the  Raleigh  Register  in  1830,  under 
the  signature  of  "Cleveland." 

Commenting  on  some  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
educational  advancement  in  North  Carolina,  Dr.  Cald- 
well said :  — 1 

When  a  people  have  continued  long  in  one  course  of  legis- 
lation, when  they  have  frequently  and  habitually  resisted  es- 
says made  to  diversify  or  enlarge  it,  any  measure  which  looks 
beyond  the  limits  of  their  ordinary  action  must  conspicuously 
embody  advantages  great  and  numerous  and  unquestionable, 
if  it  would  hope  for  complacent  consideration,  much  more  for 
final  acceptance.  Should  an  innovation  in  any  instance  gain 
their  assent,  and  through  malformation  or  mismanagement 
unhappily  fail  to  secure  its  object,  the  event  will  be  pregnant 
with  disappointment  to  all  future  efforts  at  improvement.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  it  should  prove  successful,  even  inveterate 
prejudice  may  be  weakened  and  dissolved  and  many  things 
become  easy  which  before  were  impossible. 

There  is  perhaps  no  art  or  science  in  which  greater  improve- 
ment has  been  made  than  in  that  of  education  in  primary 
schools.  It  has  assumed  a  character  wholly  different  from  that 
of  former  times,  and  from  that  in  which  it  still  appears  among 
ourselves.  The  mode  of  communicating  instruction,  the  vari- 
ety of  which  it  consists,  the  interest  ever  kept  alive  in,  the 
bosom  of  the  pupil,  the  exclusion  of  corporal  punishment  with 
which  it  is  most  successfully  conducted,  the  activity  and  ver- 
satility to  which  it  trains  the  intellectual  faculties,  the  life  and 
force  which  it  imparts  to  the  human  affections,  and  the  wide 
range  of  thought  and  knowledge  which  it  opens  before  the 
reason  and  curiosity  of  the  pupil,  transcend  the  anticipated 
pictures  even  of  an  indulged  imagination.  Could  we  witness  it 
in  its  processes  and  effects,  its  superior  excellence  would  as- 
suredly occur  to  us  with  a  conviction  as  complete,  as  every  one 
now  feels  in  favor  of  the  gin  in  preference  to  the  fingers  in  the 
process  of  cleaning  cotton,  of  the  steamboat  compared  with 
sails  or  oars,  or  of  a  locomotive  engine  carrying  its  numerous 

1  These  letters  are  published  in  Coon,  Public  Education  in  North 
Carolina,  1790-18W,  A  Documentary  History,  vol.  n. 


122    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

tons  at  twelve  miles  an  hour,  contrasted  with  the  labor  and 
plodding  movement  of  wagons  and  horses,  of  which  unhappily 
to  our  incalculable  loss  we  are  still  fain  to  avail  ourselves,  over 
the  sharp  pinches,  the  floundering  water  pits  and  jolting  ob- 
stacles of  highways  on  which  the  hand  of  improvement  has 
never  operated.  Nothing  certainly  is  wanted  but  this  ocular 
demonstration,  to  the  resolute  and  instant  adoption  of  all  these 
astonishing  and  inestimable  improvements  which  distinguish 
the  generation  of  men  and  the  age  to  which  we  belong,  above 
the  bygone  ages  and  generations  of  the  world.  But  to  wit- 
ness the  present  perfection  of  the  schoolmaster's  art  is  not  our 
privilege,  for  its  examples  are  too  remote.  And  this  presents 
an  obstacle  to  any  system  of  elementary  schools  we  can  recom- 
mend for  the  children  of  our  State. 

Another  obstruction  meets  us  in  our  aversion  to  taxation 
beyond  the  bare  necessities  of  government  and  the  public  tran- 
quillity. Any  scheme  of  popular  education  must  be  capable  of 
deriving  existence  originally,  and  of  maintaining  it  perpetually, 
without  taxing  us  for  the  purpose,  or  we  are  well  aware  that 
we  shall  not  as  a  people  consent  to  its  establishment. 

A  still  further  difficulty  is  felt  in  the  indifference  unhappily 
prevalent  in  many  of  our  people  on  the  subject  of  education. 
Vast  numbers  have  grown  up  into  life,  have  passed  into  its 
later  years  and  raised  families  without  it:  and  probably  there 
are  multitudes  of  whose  forefathers  this  is  no  less  to  be  said. 
Human  nature  is  ever  apt  to  contract  prejudices  against  that 
which  has  never  entered  into  its  customs.  Especially  is  this 
likely  to  be  the  case  if  there  have  been  large  numbers  who  were 
subject  in  common  to  our  same  defects  and  privations.  They 
sustain  themselves  by  joint  interest  and  feelings  against  the 
disparagements  and  disadvantages  of  their  condition.  It  be- 
comes even  an  object  to  believe  that  the  want  of  education  is 
of  little  consequence;  and  as  they  have  made  their  way  through 
the  world  without  it,  better  than  some  who  have  enjoyed  its 
privileges,  they  learn  to  regard  it  with  slight  if  not  with  oppo- 
sition, especially  when  called  to  any  effort  or  contribution  of 
funds  for  securing  its  advantages  to  the  children.  Such  are  the 
woeful  consequences  to  any  people  who,  in  the  formation  of 
new  settlements,  have  not  carried  along  with  them  the  estab- 
lishment of  schools  for  the  education  of  their  families.    So 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       123 

strangely  may  the  truth  be  inverted  in  the  minds  of  men  in  such 
circumstances,  that  they  become  avowed  partisans  of  mental 
darkness  against  light,  and  are  sometimes  seen  glorying  in 
ignorance  as  their  privilege  and  boast.  When  a  people  lapse 
into  this  state,  and  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  multitudes  are 
to  be  found  among  us  of  this  description,  it  must  be  no  small 
difficulty  to  neutralize  their  antipathy  against  education,  and 
enlist  them  in  support  of  any  system  for  extending  it  to  every 
family  in  the  State. 

I  might  mention  further,  as  one  of  the  greatest  obstructions, 
the  scattered  condition  of  our  population,  over  a  vast  extent 
of  territory,  making  it  difficult  to  embody  numbers  within  such 
a  compass  as  will  make  it  convenient  or  practicable  for  children 
to  attend  upon  instruction. 

A  most  serious  impediment  is  felt  in  our  want  of  commercial 
opportunities,  by  which,  though  we  may  possess  ample  means 
of  subsistence  to  our  families,  money  is  difficult  of  attainment 
to  build  schoolhouses  and  support  teachers.  Could  the  avenues 
of  trade  be  opened  to  this  agricultural  people,  funds  would  flow 
in  from  abroad,  and  resources  would  be  created  at  home, 
which  would  make  the  support  of  schools  and  many  other  ex- 
penses to  be  felt  as  of  no  consequence.  Excluded  as  we  now  are 
from  the  market  of  the  world,  the  necessity  of  rigid  economy  is 
urged  against  every  expenditure  however  small,  and  the  first 
plea  which  meets  us,  when  the  education  of  children  is  im- 
pressed upon  parents,  is  their  inability  to  bear  the  expense. 
This  is  one  principal  reason  why  it  has  been  thought  that 
among  all  the  improvements  upon  which  we  are  called  to  en- 
gage for  the  benefit  of  the  State,  commercial  opportunity  shall 
be  first.  With  the  enlargement  of  funds,  every  difficulty  would 
vanish  in  the  way  to  such  improvements  as  are  rapidly  ele- 
vating other  States  to  distinction  and  opulence.  .  .  . 

I  have  already  mentioned  seven  distinct  causes  of  embar- 
rassment in  the  organization  of  any  plan  for  popular  education. 
It  were  easy  to  extend  the  enumeration,  but  these  will  suffice 
to  show  the  serious  obstacles  that  meet  us  in  t,he  formation  of 
a  system  of  primary  schools,  to  stagger  our  hopes  of  its  accept- 
ance with  the  people.  An  eighth,  however,  I  must  not  omit, 
on  account  of  its  very  great  influence.  It  is  seen  in  the  aversion 
with  which  we  recoil  from  laws  that  exercise  constraint  upon 


124    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

our  actions.  We  are  a  people  whose  habits  and  wishes  revolt  at 
everything  that  infringes  upon  an  entire  freedom  of  choice 
upon  almost  every  subject.  It  would  be  easy  to  elucidate  how 
this  has  come  to  be  a  trait  so  deeply  marked  in  our  character, 
but  its  reality  is  unquestionable.  Provision  for  general  instruc- 
tion can  scarcely  be  effected,  without  some  compulsory  meas- 
ures regulating  the  actions  of  individuals  into  particular  chan- 
nels directed  upon  the  object.  Every  such  measure  is  felt  to  be 
an  entrenchment  upon  the  indefinite  discretion  to  which  we 
tenaciously  adhere,  when  a  relinquishment  of  it  is  not  abso- 
lutely indispensable. 

In  considering  plans  for  overcoming  the  educational 
backwardness  of  the  State,  the  letters  declared:  — 

It  will  be  forever  vain  to  meditate  plans  of  legislative  action, 
if  we  persist  in  looking  to  means,  which  the  people  have  given 
prescriptive  evidence  that  they  will  never  adopt.  Why  con- 
tinue to  press  schemes  from  year  to  year,  involving  the  neces- 
sity of  taxation?  Such  projects  may  serve  to  amuse,  to  dis- 
tract, to  weaken.  Party  spirit,  which  is  the  bane  of  all  wise  and 
sound  policy,  is  perpetuated  from  year  to  year,  assumes  a 
standing  character,  and  is  propagated  among  the  people,  poi- 
soning the  fountains  of  legislation.  The  halls  of  the  Assembly 
become  an  arena  to  fight  over  again  the  same  battles,  in  which 
it  often  happens  that  the  best  interests  of  the  country  are  con- 
nected with  the  degradation  of  defeat.  Success  is  made  the 
test  of  merit.  The  strength  of  a  cause  is  estimated,  not  from 
the  benefits  with  which  it  is  pregnant  to  the  State,  but  by  the 
comparative  numbers  enlisted  in  its  support  or  subversion,  by 
adherence  to  a  party,  the  agitations  of  hope  and  fear,  and  the 
delusions  of  artificial  excitement.  The  triumphs  of  victorious 
opposition,  even  to  an  object  so  sacred  and  all  important  as  the 
education  of  the  people,  are  capable  of  covering  the  object 
itself  with  ignominy,  through  an  indiscreet  and  persevering 
connection  of  it  with  loans  and  taxes  to  which  our  established 
feelings  are  in  revolting  and  irreconcilable  aversion. 

The  laws  and  measures  which  have  been  urged  upon  us  by 
the  most  unquestionable  patriotism,  and  by  minds  of  every 
rank  in  ability,  and  which  have  owed  their  prostration  to  the 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT        125 

taxes  proposed  for  their  execution,  who  could  attempt  to 
enumerate?  They  lie  entombed  in  the  mouldering  records  of 
our  legislative  assemblies.  Were  each  to  occupy  the  space  of 
earth  usually  allotted  to  a  fellow  mortal,  no  repository  of  the 
dead  in  the  wide  range  of  our  State  would  be  ample  enough  for 
their  receptions.  Let  us  take  warning  from  their  fate,  and  look 
to  other  means. 

Thousands  of  parents  are  ready  to  second  any  practicable 
system  by  which  education  may  be  accessible  to  their  children. 
Let  it  be  offered  to  their  voluntary  acceptance  by  the  best 
methods  of  instruction,  and  at  the  least  expense,  and  they  will 
grasp  with  eagerness  the  proffered  privilege.  How  can  we 
imagine  that  a  people  like  ourselves,  living  in  an  age  of  knowl- 
edge everywhere  distributed  through  a  thousand  channels,  can 
continue  indifferent  to  its  opportunities.  There  is  not  a  wind  of 
heaven,  come  from  what  quarter  it  may,  which  wafts  not  to 
our  ears  improvements  and  discoveries  that  fill  the  world  with 
activity  and  interest. 

A  discussion  of  the  three  usual  methods  of  education 
—  the  voluntary  plan,  legislative  aid  by  means  of  taxa- 
tion, and  a  combination  of  voluntary  and  state  aid  — 
followed  in  the  third  letter.  It  is  in  this  letter  that  edu- 
cational practices  in  the  State  at  that  time  were  freely 
remarked  upon  and  strictures  made  on  the  teaching 
profession :  — 

The  first  method  is  the  one  which  we  now  practice.  It  con- 
sists in  the  origination  and  maintenance  of  a  school  in  any 
neighborhood,  by  a  voluntary  combination  among  as  many  of 
the  inhabitants  as  will  agree.  Its  insufficiency  is  proved  by  all 
our  past  and  present  experience.  A  school  house  is  to  be  erected 
at  the  common  expense;  a  site  for  it  is  to  be  chosen  with  the 
consent  of  all;  a  master  is  to  be  found;  a  selection  and  approba- 
tion if  there  be  more  than  one,  is  to  be  discussed  and  settled; 
his  compensation  and  support  must  be  fixed  to  the  general 
satisfaction,  and  the  time  of  continuance  must  be  stipulated. 

Here  are  six  principal  points  on  every  one  of  which  dissen- 
sion of  opinions,  feelings,  and  interests  may  spring  up,  to  pro- 


126    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

duce  weakness  or  defeat.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  upon  the 
perplexities  that  meet  us  at  every  step,  and  the  discourage- 
ment of  failures  and  disappointments,  until  at  last  in  a  vast 
number  of  instances,  the  object  is  relinquished  in  despair. 

The  evil  which  is  the  greatest  of  all,  is  the  want  of  qualified 
masters.  It  may  be  difficult  to  obtain  a  teacher  at  all,  but  it  is 
pretty  certain  in  the  present  state  of  the  country,  not  one  is 
perfectly  fitted  for  the  occupation.  Do  we  think  that  of  all  the 
professions  in  the  world,  that  of  a  schoolmaster  requires  the 
least  preparatory  formation?  If  we  do,  there  cannot  be  a  more 
egregious  mistake.  For  if  any  man  arrived  at  years  of  matur- 
ity, who  can  read,  write  and  cipher,  were  taken  up  to  be 
trained  to  the  true  methods  of  instructing  and  managing  an 
elementary  school,  by  a  master  teacher  who  understands  them 
well,  he  could  scarcely  comprehend  them  and  establish  them 
in  his  habits  in  less  than  two  years.  This  is  not  to  speak  with 
looseness  and  extravagance  on  the  subject;  and  we  need  only 
to  examine  with  opportunity  of  information,  to  be  convinced 
of  it  as  a  practical  truth.  Yet  in  our  present  mode  of  popular 
education,  we  act  upon  the  principle  that  school-keeping  is  a 
business  to  which  scarcely  any  one  but  an  idiot  is  incompetent, 
if  he  only  knows  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  If  in  almost 
every  vicinage  there  happens  to  be  one  or  a  few  who  have  more 
correct  opinions,  the  numbers  who  think  otherwise  carry  it 
over  their  heads,  and  our  primary  schools  are  kept  sunk  down 
to  the  lowest  point  of  degradation,  and  education  is  disgraced 
by  our  own  misconceptions  and  mismanagements. 

In  the  present  condition  of  society  and  of  public  opinion,  the 
occupation  of  a  schoolmaster,  in  comparison  with  others,  is 
regarded  with  contempt.  It  would  be  wonderful  were  it  other- 
wise, when  we  look  at  the  manner  in  which  it  is  very  often,  if 
not  most  usually,  filled.  Is  a  man  constitutionally  and  habitu- 
ally indolent,  a  burden  upon  all  from  whom  he  can  extract  a 
support?  Then  there  is  one  way  of  shaking  him  off;  let  us  make 
him  a  schoolmaster.  To  teach  a  school  is,  in  the  opinion  of 
many,  little  else  than  sitting  still  and  doing  nothing.  Has  any 
man  wasted  all  his  property,  or  ended  in  debt  by  indiscretion 
and  misconduct?  The  business  of  school-keeping  stands  wide 
open  for  his  reception,  and  here  he  sinks  to  the  bottom,  for 
want  of  capacity  to  support  himself.  Has  any  one  ruined  him- 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       127 

self,  and  done  all  he  could  to  corrupt  others,  by  dissipation, 
drinking,  seduction,  and  a  course  of  irregularities?  Nay,  has 
he  returned  from  a  prison  after  an  ignominious  atonement  for 
some  violation  of  the  laws?  He  is  destitute  of  character  and 
cannot  be  trusted,  but  presently  he  opens  a  school  and  the 
children  are  seen  flocking  into  it,  for  if  he  is  willing  to  act  in 
that  capacity,  we  shall  all  admit  that  as  he  can  read  and  write, 
and  cipher  to  the  square  root,  he  will  make  an  excellent  school- 
master. In  short,  it  is  no  matter  what  the  man  is,  or  what  his 
manners  or  principles,  if  he  has  escaped  with  life  from  the  penal 
code,  we  have  the  satisfaction  to  think  that  he  can  still  have 
credit  as  a  schoolmaster. 

Is  it  possible,  fellow  citizens,  that  in  such  a  state  of  things 
as  this,  education  can  be  in  high  estimation  among  us?  Is  it 
strange  that  in  the  eye  of  thousands,  when  education  is  spoken 
of,  you  can  read  a  most  distinct  expression  that  it  is  a  poor  and 
valueless  thing?  Can  we  rationally  hope  that  so  long  as  a 
method  of  popular  education  as  this  shall  be  all  to  which  we 
look,  the  great  body  of  the  people  will  become  enlightened  and 
intelligent?  Will  they  be  qualified  to  act  in  all  the  various  rela- 
tions of  parents  and  children,  brothers  and  sisters,  masters  and 
servants,  neighbors,  members  of  the  community,  citizens  of 
the  State,  subjects  of  Providence,  and  heirs  of  immortality? 
In  all  these  capacities  every  child  that  grows  up  into  life  must 
necessarily  act,  and  the  teacher  whose  habits,  views,  and  dis- 
positions do  not  qualify,  and  whose  conscience  does  not  urge 
him  to  instill  into  his  pupils  the  principles,  excite  the  emotions, 
and  select  the  books  best  fitted  to  them  all,  is  totally  defective 
in  the  business  of  a  schoolmaster,  and  has  need  to  learn  the 
first  elements  of  his  art.  If  any  difficulty  occurs  as  to  the  large- 
ness of  the  qualifications  of  a  common  teacher,  which  seem 
here  to  be  required  in  excess,  it  is  a  subject  on  which  I  propose 
to  explain  more  fully  afterwards,  and  will  hope  for  a  reference 
at  present  to  the  further  remarks  to  be  made  upon  it. 

Every  species  of  business  may  be  executed  with  various  de- 
grees of  ability,  and  men  may  differ  in  their  opinions  of  such  as 
pQMCnn  skill  of  a  higher  order  in  their  professions.  But  respect- 
ing such  as  possess  no  talent,  no  qualification,  none  can  mis- 
take. All  must  feel  one  common  overpowering  conviction  that 
their  pretensions  are  despicable.  Let  any  profession  be  wholly 


128    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

consigned  to  occupants  so  wretchedly  destitute  of  every  quali- 
fication in  skill  or  principle,  let  it  be  known  to  the  people  only 
in  such  defective  and  degrading  forms,  and  how  can  it  be  other- 
wise than  contemptible,  and  all  that  is  connected  with  it  of 
little  or  no  worth?  .  .  . 

That  education  in  our  primary  schools  should  be  held  in  low 
estimation,  is  but  a  natural  consequence  of  the  circumstances 
in  which  it  is  acquired.  It  never  can  be  valued  so  long  as  they 
continue.  The  resources  to  which  we  have  been  left  through 
our  whole  progress  as  a  people,  being  of  this  character,  the 
consequence  is  well  known  that  thousands,  and  perhaps  tens 
of  thousands,  are  left  to  grow  up  unable  to  read  at  all.  Experi- 
ence has  made  it  undisputable  that  the  plan  which  we  have 
practiced,  if  plan  it  can  be  called,  is  a  total  failure  so  far  as 
North  Carolina  is  concerned.  Can  evidence  be  wanting  of  its 
deplorable  consequences,  when  it  is  by  no  means  rare  to  hear 
men  directing  upon  education  a  derision  which  would  imply 
that  they  can  deem  it  a  glory  and  a  privilege  to  be  without  it? 
I  have  been  placed  in  circumstances,  and  there  are  few  I  fear 
who  have  not  been  similarly  situated,  where  it  would  be  dan- 
gerous to  the  election  of  a  candidate  to  have  it  thought  that  he 
had  any  pretensions  to  information  or  culture,  at  least  beyond 
a  bare  capacity  to  read.  And  some  miserable  being,  to  secure 
the  great  object  of  his  ambition,  has  frontlessly  presented  it  as 
a  sure  and  glorious  passport  to  success  over  the  head  of  a  rival, 
who  was  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  had  some  education,  that  he 
belonged  to  the  class  of  the  ignorant,  with  whom  the  greater 
part  considered  it  their  glory  to  be  ranked. 

We  see,  then,  the  consequences  of  educating  children  by 
such  wretched  methods  as  we  commonly  practice.  Thus  it  will 
always  continue  to  be,  so  long  as  these  methods  are  retained. 
We  dress  up  the  occupation  of  a  schoolmaster  in  rags.  It  ap- 
pears in  hideous  deformity  by  our  own  arrangement.  It  is  no 
wonder  if  that  which  we  intended  for  the  figure  of  a  man  can- 
not be  thought  of  otherwise  than  as  a  laughing-stock,  a  by- 
word, or  a  scarecrow,  and  then  education  is  put  down  as  a 
questionable  subject.  Nay,  it  becomes  a  thing  of  scorn  and 
reproach.  The  repulsive  and  disgraceful  forms  in  which  it 
appears  have  been  given  to  it  by  ourselves,  in  the  crudity  of 
our  own  misconceptions.  Where  is  the  subject  or  the  person- 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       129 

age  that  may  not  be  exposed  to  derision  and  rejection  by  a 
similaT  process? 

And  how  shall  the  confidence  and  the  affections  of  the  people 
be  regained?  It  is  by  stripping  off  the  offensive  and  contempti- 
ble disguise,  and  presenting  Education  in  all  the  beauty  and 
excellence  of  her  proper  character.  No  sooner  shall  this  be 
done  than  all  will  fall  in  love  with  her.  Her  presence  will  be 
courted  as  the  privilege  and  ornament  of  every  vicinage,  and 
under  her  patronage  the  clouds  and  mists  that  lower  upon  us 
will  be  dissipated. 

Other  letters  discussed  the  public-school  system  of 
other  States  and  pointed  out  those  features  which  would 
be  practicable  for  conditions  in  North  Carolina.  Provi- 
sion for  training  teachers  was  regarded  as  a  necessary- 
feature  of  any  system  which  the  State  should  adopt,  and 
a  thorough  plan  for  a  school  in  which  such  provision 
could  be  made  was  considered  in  detail.  The  demand 
for  trained  teachers  would  then  increase  and  "  the  walls 
that  shut  in  our  people  from  the  light  of  day"  would  be 
broken  down. 

Certain  social  and  economic  conditions  during  these 
years  had  produced  a  general  feeling  of  uncertainty  and 
depression,  with  the  result  that  progressive  policies  of 
internal  improvements  and  education  were  difficult  to 
formulate  and  execute.  These  conditions  had  variously 
revealed  themselves.  In  1790  the  State  ranked  third  in 
population;  ten  years  later  it  had  declined  to  fourth,  and 
by  1830  to  fifth,  place  among  the  other  States  of  the 
Union.  Moreover,  the  value  of  lands  was  also  on  the 
decrease:  in  1815  it  was  more  than  in  1833,  although  a 
million  acres  had  been  entered  by  the  latter  date.  Slaves 
were  increasing  faster  than  the  white  population;  emi- 
gration continued  a  persistent  and  alarming  problem, 
thousands  of  people  leaving  the  State  every  year  in 


130    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

search  of  better  opportunities;  and  the  want  of  better 
commercial  opportunities  closed  the  avenues  of  trade 
to  a  people  almost  entirely  agricultural,  proving  a  most 
serious  impediment  to  social  progress.1  The  report  of 
the  committee  on  internal  improvements  in  1833  recited 
many  of  these  conditions  and  discussed  the  inauguration 
of  a  state  policy  by  which  the  evils  which  resulted  from 
the  previous  policy  of  the  State  could  be  cured.  Among 
other  things  the  report  said :  — 

Upon  comparing  the  present  languishing  condition  of  the 
agricultural  resources  of  North  Carolina  with  the  improved 
and  prosperous  condition  of  even  the  most  inconsiderable 
members  of  the  Union,  the  picture  portrays  the  contrast,  char- 
acteristic of  a  community  worn  down  by  the  hand  of  adversity, 
in  colors  too  strong  to  be  concealed.  That  in  North  Carolina, 
it  is  apparent  the  reward  of  labor  has  ceased  to  be  a  stimulus  to 
industry  and  enterprise;  that  agriculture  has  ceased  to  yield  to 
the  landowner  a  compensation  equivalent  to  the  expense  at- 
tending the  transportation  of  his  surplus  produce  to  market. 
The  consequent  result  of  this  state  of  things  is,  that  real  estate 
throughout  the  country  has  so  depreciated  in  the  hands  of  farm- 
ers as  to  be  considered  not  to  possess  a  fixed  value  estimated 
upon  its  products.  Hence  our  citizens  are  daily  abandoning  the 
places  of  their  birth  for  situations  in  other  States  less  healthy, 
and  often  not  superior  in  fertility  of  soil;  but  which,  by  the 
improvement  of  those  States,  rendered  so  by  the  fostering  aid 
of  legislative  patronage,  the  facilities  to  wealth  and  the  means 
of  acquiring  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  profits  of  labor  hold  out 
stronger  inducements  to  agricultural  pursuits  than  is  to  be 
found  in  North  Carolina.  Nor  does  the  evil  stop  here.  The 
tide  of  emigration,  which  never  ebbs,  not  only  carries  with  it  a 
great  portion  of  the  enterprise  and  prime  of  our  youth,  but 
much  of  the  productive  and  most  valuable  description  of  the 
State's  wealth.  These  are  facts  of  "ominous  import,"  which 
should  admonish  us  to  guard  against  the  fatal  issue  with  which 

1  Boyd,  "The  Finances  of  the  North  Carolina  Literary  Fund,"  in 
South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  July  and  October,  1914. 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       1S1 

they  are  pregnant.  Can  it  be  our  interest  so  to  shape  our  policy 
as  to  render  our  State  the  mere  nursery  for  the  Western  and 
Southwestern  States?  Surely  not.  We  do  not  thereby  lessen 
the  political  influence  of  the  State  in  the  councils  of  the  general 
government,  but  we  evidently  weaken  the  ties  of  patriotism  of 
our  citizens  to  the  land  of  their  nativity. 

The  social  relations  of  family  connections  evidently  con- 
stitute the  most  lasting  cement  of  the  political  permanency  of 
any  country.  Indeed,  what  else  is  it  but  the  social  ties  of  fam- 
ily connections,  when  rendered  happy  and  prosperous  by  their 
own  industry,  that  stamps  a  value  upon  society?  Or  will  it  be 
contended  that  the  present  scattered  condition  of  the  family 
connections  of  North  Carolina  has  a  tendency  to  increase 
either  the  happiness  or  the  devotion  of  its  inhabitants  to  the 
interest  of  the  State?  Go  into  any  neighborhood,  and  inquire 
of  the  seniors  or  heads  of  families,  how  many  children  they 
have  raised,  and  in  what  State  do  they  reside,  and  in  nine  cases 
out  of  ten,  the  answer  will  be,  "I  have  raised  some  six  or  eight 
children ;  but  the  major  portion  of  them  have  migrated  to  some 
other  State";  and  adds  the  parent,  "I  am  anxious  to  sell  my 
lands,  to  enable  me  to  follow  them."  Thus,  it  will  appear  that 
the  lands  of  nine  tenths  of  the  farmers  of  the  State  are  actually 
in  market;  and  what  does  it  arise  from?  Evidently  from  the 
fact  that  the  distance  to  and  expense  of  sending  the  staple 
products  of  the  soil  to  market,  so  far  lessen  the  profits  upon  ag- 
ricultural labor  that  the  farmer  has  no  inducements  to  effort. 
Therefore,  it  is  that  all  our  farmers  are  land-sellers,  and  not 
land-buyers. 

The  cause  of  these  evils  is  apparent;  but  no  less  so  than  is  the 
remedy.  Throw  open  the  agricultural  interest  of  our  State  to 
the  action  of  trade  or  commerce;  open  its  widespread  avenues, 
by  constructing  railroads  from  the  interior  of  our  fertile  back 
country  to  markets  within  the  State,  at  least,  so  far  as  nature 
in  the  distribution  of  her  favors  has  rendered  them  feasible; 
connect  by  railroads  the  rivers  of  the  State  at  given  points, 
whereby  the  produce  of  their  fruitful  valleys  may  be  sent  to  an 
export  market.  This  done,  and  it  will  reflect  to  the  State  all 
the  substantial  benefits  to  be  derived  from  an  export  dep6t  — 
such  at  least  as  will  locate  a  capital  within  its  influence,  equal 
to  the  amount  of  exports. 


132    THE  TUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

By  concentrating  the  commerce  of  the  State  to  one  point,  it 
will  remove  an  evil  which  but  few  are  apprised  of.  The  pro- 
duce should  be  received  at  the  export  depot  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities so  as  to  furnish  a  cargo,  without  subjecting  the  shipper  to 
the  increased  expense  arising  from  delay,  a  privation  in  the 
outset  which  often  renders  the  voyage  unsuccessful.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  adding  to  the  aggregate  quantity  of  export  articles 
at  the  shipping  port. 

The  laggard  progress  of  internal  improvements  the 
report  charged  to  the  Legislature :  — 

But  your  committee  hath  the  gratification  to  perceive  that 
this  important  subject  has  in  a  great  degree  undergone  the 
inquisitorial  examination  of  the  people,  whose  decision  in  all 
matters  of  public  interest  has  ever  been  found  in  unison  with 
the  general  welfare. 

The  people  now  perceive  that  they  have  endured  a  state  of 
privation,  which  sad  experience  shows  to  be  a  downward 
course,  and  when  longer  forbearance  would  be  but  an  aggrava- 
tion of  the  evil.  But  the  people,  knowing  their  interest,  with  a 
voice  not  to  be  resisted  hath  proclaimed  aloud  that  the  period 
has  arrived  when  something  ought,  something  can,  and  when 
something  must  he  done  to  arrest  the  progress  of  our  down  hill 
march. 

Public  expectations  have  become  awakened,  all  eyes  have 
been  turned  upon  the  present  session  of  the  General  Assembly, 
and  now  look  with  patriotic  solicitude  for  the  anticipated  fav- 
orable result  of  its  deliberations.  With  regard  to  the  ability  of 
individual  efforts  to  accomplish  the  desired  results  of  public 
improvements,  there  can  be  no  difficulty  in  perceiving  that 
they  cannot  raise  the  required  funds.  Our  citizens,  subjected 
as  they  evidently  are,  and  have  ever  been,  to  an  expense  almost 
equal  to  the  market  value  of  a  great  portion  of  their  surplus 
produce  in  getting  it  to  market,  must  be  ill-prepared  to  engage 
in  enterprises,  which  from  their  importance  should  be  justly 
considered  undertakings  of  state  magnitude.  It  is,  therefore, 
apparent,  that  if  the  improvements  of  the  State  are  to  be  ef- 
fected at  all,  they  must  be  by  the  aid  of  the  State,  and  not  by 
private  companies.  The  expression  of  public  opinion  by  the 
people,  in  their  recent  numerous  primary  meetings,  has  given 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       133 

ample  testimony  of  what  the  public  expectations  are  with 
regard  to  the  two-fifths  principle.  The  unanimity  of  the  inter- 
nal improvement  convention,  held  in  November  last  in  Ra- 
leigh, in  which  forty-four  counties  were  represented,  and  of 
which  [there]  were  but  five  dissenting  votes  to  the  magnificent 
scheme  recommended  by  that  body  to  the  consideration  of  the 
General  Assembly,  should  be  viewed  as  conclusive  as  to  the 
sentiments  of  the  people  upon  the  subject. 

In  criticism  of  the  continued  policy  of  the  Legislature 
the  following  newspaper  article,  signed  "Old  Field," 
which  appeared  about  this  time,  is  significant:  — 

Mr.  Editor:  In  your  last  paper  I  observed  a  piece  taken  from 
the  Family  Lyceum,  which  contains  a  great  deal  of  matter  upon 
the  subject  of  the  school  funds  in  the  different  States.  What  a 
mirror  is  it  to  the  eyes  of  a  North  Carolinian !  We  see  from 
that,  that  she,  upon  this,  as  upon  all  other  subjects  of  impor- 
tance to  her  citizens,  is  almost  a  century  behind  her  sister 
States.  True,  she  has  a  small  school  fund,  but  how  is  it  ap- 
plied? Do  we  use  it  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  within  the 
reach  of  the  children  of  the  poor  the  means  of  education?  No, 
but  we  borrow  from  it,  from  year  to  year,  to  pay  our  members 
of  Assembly!  How  humiliating  this  must  be  to  the  pride  of 
every  public-spirited  citizen.  The  State  of  North  Carolina 
borrowing  money  to  pay  her  members  of  Assembly,  from  a 
fund  set  apart  for  the  education  of  the  poor!  Shame  upon  our 
law-givers.  Can  we  expect  to  compete  with  our  sister  States,  in 
the  march  of  improvement  now  going  on,  while  many  of  our 
citizens  remain  ignorant  even  of  the  alphabet?  Can  we  expect 
to  arouse  them  to  the  importance  of  internal  communication, 
by  means  of  canals,  or  railroads,  while  they  remain  ignorant 
even  of  the  names  of  these  mediums  of  conveyance?  Surely 
not.  A  child  must  crawl  before  it  can  walk.  .  .  .  Our  citizens 
must  learn  how  to  spell  internal  improvements  before  they  can 
comprehend  the  meaning  of  the  term. 

I  have  thrown  out  these  desultory  remarks,  in  the  hope,  Mr. 
Editor,  that  some  person  more  able  than  I  am,  would  urge  the 
importance  of  some  system  of  common  schools,  to  the  citizens 
of  our  State.  It  is  high  time  we  were  thinking  upon  the  subject. 
...  It  is  one  of  vital  importance  to  our  welfare. 


134    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

In  the  same  year,  1833,  the  Committee  on  Education 
and  the  Literary  Fund  reported  to  the  Senate  that  no 
system  of  schools  could  be  established  with  the  funds 
then  on  hand,  and  recommended  an  increase  in  them. 
To  do  this  a  resolution  was  offered  to  appropriate  thirty 
thousand  dollars  to  drain  certain  vacant  and  unappro- 
priated swamp  lands  belonging  to  the  literary  fund. 
This  would  bring  into  market  a  large  quantity  of  valu- 
able property  which  would  otherwise  remain  unavailable 
and  worthless  and  would  enormously  increase  the  re- 
sources of  the  fund.  By  such  action  the  benefits  of  edu- 
cation could  be  furnished  to  "every  cottage  throughout 
the  country "  from  the  fund  the  aggregate  amount  of 
which  was  then  considered  too  small  to  launch  a  sys- 
tem of  schools.  But  in  spite  of  the  recommendation  and 
the  popular  belief  that  something  could  be  done  to  im- 
prove conditions,  no  legislative  action  was  taken  at  this 
session.  The  next  year  a  bill  was  introduced  to  make 
surveys  and  to  sell  certain  portions  of  the  lands  belong- 
ing to  the  literary  fund,  but  nothing  came  of  the  rec- 
ommendation. At  the  same  session  a  creditable  scheme 
for  schools  was  introduced  in  the  Senate,  and  al- 
though this  bill  likewise  met  defeat  it  made  sufficient 
impression  on  the  Legislature  to  be  printed  in  the  laws 
of  that  year.1  The  press  had  praise  for  the  proposed 
legislation  and  called  it  one  of  the  most  important  meas- 
ures ever  presented  to  the  Assembly.  The  Raleigh  Star, 
after  discussing  the  important  features  of  the  bill,  said : — 

The  late  session  was  not  very  propitious  to  the  fate  of  a 
measure  so  novel  in  its  character,  and  so  important  in  its  prin- 
ciples. It  came  in  after  the  political  resolutions  and  the  con- 
vention bill,  and  of  course  had  necessarily  to  give  place  to 
them.  But  it  was  only  lost  in  the  Senate  by  a  majority  of  six 

1  McQueen's  Bill. 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       135 

votes,  after  an  explanation  of  its  principles  by  Mr.  McQueen, 
in  a  speech  of  about  an  hour's  length;  and  immediately  after 
the  bill  had  been  disposed  of,  the  senator  from  Burke,  Mr. 
Carson,  rose  in  his  place,  and  moved  that  the  bill  be  printed 
and  appended  to  the  laws  of  the  State,  and  that  the  remarks  of 
the  introducer  of  the  bill  be  published  along  with  it.  The  first 
part  of  the  motion  prevailed  unanimously;  but  Mr.  McQueen 
would  not  consent  to  the  last.  We  hope,  however,  that  he  may 
yet  be  prevailed  upon,  by  the  importance  of  the  subject,  to 
write  out  his  remarks  for  the  press,  that  the  people  may  have 
the  benefit  of  the  useful  information  and  cogent  arguments 
which  they  contained.  A  stronger  recommendation  than  the 
order  taken  upon  the  bill  and  remarks  by  the  body  to  whom 
they  were  submitted,  could  not  be  given;  for  we  believe  it  is 
the  first  time  that  either  a  bill  or  a  speech  received  such  a  dis- 
tinguished mark  of  approbation  by  our  Legislature. 

No  educational  legislation  was  passed  in  1835,  the 
Assembly  committees  not  even  making  a  report  on  the 
subject.  Governor  Swain  discussed  the  matter  in  his 
message,  however,  referring  to  the  small  provision 
which  the  State  had  made  for  education  and  internal 
improvements.  At  the  session  of  1836-37  a  memorial 
was  presented  from  some  citizens  of  Fayetteville  who 
"witnessed  with  pain  and  mortification  the  depressed 
condition  which  each  section  of  our  State  presents, 
when  compared  with  that  of  her  sisters  of  our  happy 
Union'*;  and  Governor  Dudley,  in  his  inaugural  address 
to  the  Assembly,  said :  — 

As  a  State,  we  stand  fifth  in  population,  first  in  climate, 
equal  in  soil,  minerals,  and  ores,  with  superior  advantages  for 
manufacturing  and  with  a  hardy,  industrious,  and  economical 
people.  Yet  with  such  unequaled  natural  facilities,  we  are 
actually  least  in  the  scale  of  relative  wealth  and  enterprise,  and 
our  condition  daily  becoming  worse  —  lands  depressed  in 
price,  fallow  and  deserted  —  manufacturing  advantages  unim- 
proved —  our  stores  of  mineral  wealth  undisturbed,  and  our 
colleges  and  schools  languishing  from  neglect.  .  .  . 


136    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

It  was  said  that  there  were  then  in  the  State  fully 
120,000  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  fifteen 
who  were  "destitute  of  a  common-school  education.  In 
some  parts  of  the  State,  many  large  families  are  found, 
not  one  of  whom,  parents  or  children,  can  read  their 
alphabet;  and  in  others,  whole  neighborhoods  of  forty 
or  fifty  families  exist,  among  whom  but  few  individuals 
can  read  their  Bible.'*  From  press  and  pulpit  the  need 
for  schools  and  increased  facilities  for  education  was 
being  discussed,  and  the  whole  subject  was  becoming 
more  and v more  absorbing  in  its  interest. 

Several  important  educational  steps  were  taken  at 
the  session  of  the  Legislature  of  1836-37.  One  of  these 
was  the  plan  adopted  for  disposing  of  the  surplus  reve- 
nue distributed  by  act  of  Congress  in  1836;  another  was 
the  passage  of  a  law  which  vested  certain  swamp  lands 
in  the  literary  board  and  appropriated  the  sum  of  $200- 
000  for  their  drainage  and  improvement;  and  still  an- 
other, equal  in  importance  to  these,  was  the  direction 
given  to  the  literary  board  to  digest  a  plan  for  a  state 
school  system  and  to  report  to  the  next  session  of  the 
Assembly.  These  steps,  all  of  an  educational  signifi- 
cance, marked  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  in  education  and 
social  progress  in  the  State.  The  principal  of  the  liter- 
ary fund  was  now  greatly  increased  with  a  resulting 
expansion  of  its  revenues.  The  share  of  North  Carolina 
in  the  surplus  revenue  from  the  federal  government 
amounted  to  $1,433,757.40,  all  of  which  was  eventually 
applied  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  cause  of  education. 
The  literary  fund  was  thus  increased  to  nearly  two  mil- 
lion dollars,  and  steps  were  at  once  begun  for  launching 
a  creditable  system  of  common  schools. 


GROWTH  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SENTIMENT       137 


REFERENCES 

Journals  of  the  House  and  Senate;  Laws  of  North  Carolina; 
legislative  documents ;  Coon,  Public  Education  in  North  Caro- 
lina, 1790-18 Wj  &  Documentary  History;  Smith,  History  of 
Education  in  North  Carolina;  Weeks,  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley 
and  the  Organization  of  the  Common  Schools  of  North  Carolina. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Account  for  the  fruitless  effort  to  establish  schools 
between  1825  and  1837. 

2.  What  were  some  of  the  conditions  of  this  period  that 
retarded  educational  progress? 

3.  In  what  way  were  the  educational  conditions  of  the  time 
the  product  of  social,  economic,  and  political  conditions? 

4.  How  do  the  arguments  in  favor  of  education  during  these 
years  compare  with  those  advanced  in  its  favor  between 
1800  and  1825? 

6.  What  were  the  merits  of  the  plan  offered  by  Charles  R'. 
Kenny  in  1829?  Compare  that  plan  with  the  plan  offered 
by  Hugh  McQueen  in  1834. 

6.  What  were  the  defects  of  most  of  the  plans  offered  during 
these  years  for  establishing  a  system  of  education? 

7.  How  do  the  Caldwell  letters  reflect  the  educational  senti- 
ment of  the  leaders  of  the  time? 

8.  In  what  respect  is  the  letter  opposing  legislative  aid  to 
education  (see  p.  118)  representative  of  the  sentiment 
hostile  to  educational  advancement? 

9.  What  evidence  do  you  find  that  the  popular  attitude 
toward  schools,  teachers  and  teaching  during  the  period 
discussed  in  this  chapter  was  changing? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  BEGINNINGS   OF  PUBLIC   EDUCATION    (1888-1852) 

Three  distinct  periods,  corresponding  to  as  many 
different  periods  in  our  social  and  economic  develop- 
ment, characterize  educational  development  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  is  that  of  the  transplanting  of 
European  institutions,  traditions,  and  customs  to  Amer- 
ican soil,  from  the  first  settlement  to  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  or  a  little  later,  when  political, 
social,  and  economic  conditions  in  the  mother  country 
affected  the  colonies.  The  second  period  is  one  of  at- 
tempted modification  or  adoption  in  an  effort  to  meet 
the  demands  of  a  new  and  radically  different  environ- 
ment, and  extends  from  about  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  to  about  the  fourth  decade  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  third  is  the  period  of  the  building 
up  here  of  a  system  of  education,  distinctively  Ameri- 
can, to  meet  the  new  conditions  into  which  the  nation 
had  come,  and  extends  from  the  thirties  to  near  the 
close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  We  have  already  traced 
the  educational  history  of  North  Carolina  through  the 
first  and  second  of  these  periods. 

The  third  period  shows  a  gradually  developing  faith 
in  the  power  of  the  people;  Jeffersonian  democracy  was 
How  rapidly  culminating.  The  period  is  characterized 
by  the  gradual  separation  of  public  education  from  ec- 
clesiastical control;  by  the  gradual  development  of  the 
ideal  of  local  control;  and  by  what  is  probably  even 
more  noticeable,  a  gradual  but  sure  growth  toward  the 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     139 

ideal  of  democracy.  During  this  time  public  schools 
passed  over  to  the  State;  the  old  academies  rapidly 
changed  into  public  high  schools,  colleges  became 
largely  non-sectarian,  and  state  universities  were  or- 
ganized and  developed.  It  is  during  this  period,  also, 
that  we  find  a  more  general  expansion  of  state  constitu- 
tional provisions  for  education  than  previously  existed, 
which  was  one  result  of  the  development  of  the  demo- 
cratic theory  of  government.  Specific  and  definite  lan- 
guage was  substituted  for  general  educational  terms  in 
the  constitutions.  There  was  also  an  extension  of  the 
franchise  and  an  increase  in  the  number  of  elective  offi- 
cers. It  was  during  this  period  that  we  find  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  first  normal  school,  the  creation  of  the 
first  state  board  of  education,  the  office  of  the  first  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  the  maintenance  of  the 
first  teachers'  institutes,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
first  school  libraries.  Everywhere  there  was  a  new  im- 
petus to  educational  thought  and  practice. 

Conditions  in  North  Carolina  were  showing  the  same 
marked  change  as  appeared  in  other  sections  of  the 
country  during  the  early  years  of  this  period.  Impor- 
tant political  and  social  changes  had  produced  a  new 
educational  ideal.  The  friends  of  education  were  nu- 
merous and  gradually  increasing  and  for  several  years 
had  agitated  a  movement  for  public  schools.  Condi- 
tions were  now  more  favorable  than  ever  for  undertak- 
ing such  an  enterprise;  resources  were  at  hand,  and 
there  was  no  lack  of  will  and  intelligence  to  apply  them 
with  liberality  and  discretion. 

We  saw  that  the  Legislature  of  1836-37,  however, 
was  not  quite  ready  to  enact  a  law  establishing  schools.1 
1  See  p.  136. 


140    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

But  certain  important  educational  measures  were 
passed  at  that  session:  a  part  of  the  surplus  revenue 
was  applied  to  educational  purposes;  an  appropriation 
of  $200,000  was  made  to  drain  and  improve  certain 
swamp  lands  belonging  to  the  literary  fund;  and  the 
literary  board  was  directed  to  digest  a  plan  for  a  system 
of  schools  to  be  reported  to  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Legislature. 

In  his  message  to  the  Legislature  at  the  beginning  of 
the  session,  1838-39,  Governor  Dudley  urged  the  es- 
tablishment of  schools  and  the  employment  of  a  state 
superintendent.  Early  in  the  session  several  resolutions 
were  passed  relative  to  the  subject,  and  the  report  of 
the  literary  board  was  also  early  received  in  both 
houses.  This  report  was  extensive,  thorough-going,  and 
detailed,  and  suggested  a  plan  for  common  schools 
"suited  to  the  conditions  and  resources  of  the  State"; 
and  on  this  report  was  based  the  first  public-school  law 
of  North  Carolina.  On  this  law,  ratified  January  8, 
1839,  and  its  revisions,  was  developed  the  creditable 
ante-bellum  system  of  schools  which  was  attracting  wide 
attention  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  The  im- 
portance of  this  law  justifies  a  full  reproduction  of  it  at 
this  point:  — 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  North 
Carolina,  and  it  is  hereby  enacted  by  the  authority  of  the 
same,  that  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  sheriffs  of  the  several 
counties  of  this  State,  when  they  advertise  the  next  election  for 
members  of  Congress,  to  give  notice,  at  the  same  time,  by  pub- 
lic advertisement  in  every  election  precinct  that  an  election 
will  be  held  to  ascertain  the  voice  of  the  people  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  common  schools;  and  all  who  are  in  favor  of  raising  by 
taxation,  one  dollar  for  every  two  dollars  proposed  to  be  fur- 
nishea  out  of  the  literary  fund,  for  the  establishment  of  common 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     141 

schools  in  each  school  district,  will  deposit  their  vote  with  the 
word  "school"  written  on  it;  those  opposed  to  it  will  vote  "no 
school "  upon  their  ticket;  and  all  who  vote  for  members  of  the 
house  of  commons,  shall  be  entitled  to  vote;  and  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  poll  keepers  to  count  the  votes  given  at  each  pre- 
cinct for  school  or  no  school,  and  to  return  the  same  to  the 
sheriff  who  shall  count  together  all  the  votes ;  and  if  a  majority 
shall  be  found  in  favor  of  schools,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
sheriff  to  furnish  a  certificate  of  the  same  to  the  next  county 
court  of  his  county;  and  any  sheriff  failing  to  comply  with  the 
requisitions  of  this  act,  shall  suffer  all  the  penalties  imposed  by 
law  for  failing  to  discharge  his  duty  in  any  election  for  mem- 
bers of  Assembly. 

II.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  the  several  courts  of  pleas 
and  quarter  sessions  in  each  county  of  the  State  of  North  Caro- 
lina, shall,  in  such  county  as  shall  determine  to  accept  these 
terms,  at  the  first  court  that  may  happen  after  such  election,  a 
majority  of  the  justices  of  such  county  being  present,  proceed 
to  elect  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  ten  persons,  as  super- 
intendents of  common  schools,  for  such  county;  and  in  such 
election,  it  shall  be  necessary  for  a  choice  that  each  of  the  per- 
sons elected  shall  receive  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  all  the 
justices  present. 

III.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  said  superintendents  or  a 
majority  of  them,  shall  meet  within  a  reasonable  time  there- 
after, and  shall  have  power  to  choose  one  of  their  number  as 
chairman,  and  shall  proceed  to  divide  their  respective  counties 
into  school  districts,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  common 
schools,  containing  not  more  than  six  miles  square,  but  having 
regard  to  the  number  of  the  white  children  in  each,  so  far  as 
they  can  ascertain  the  same:  Provided,  nevertheless,  that  no 
greater  number  of  school  districts  shall  be  laid  off  in  any 
county  than  shall  be  equal  to  one  for  every  six  miles  square  of 
inhabited  territory  in  said  county. 

IV.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  said  superintendents  shall 
number  the  districts,  and  make  return  thereof  to  the  first 
county  court  in  their  several  counties,  which  shall  be  held  after 
the  first  day  of  January,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
forty;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  superintendents  in  mak- 
ing their  return,  to  designate,  as  well  as  they  may,  their  natu- 


142    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

ral  boundaries  and  prominent  objects  of  the  boundary  of  each 
said  districts;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  court  to  cause 
such  return  to  be  recorded  in  the  registrar's  office  of  said 
county. 

V.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  the  aforesaid  boards  of  super- 
intendents, in  each  county,  after  completing  the  divisions  as 
aforesaid,  shall  appoint  not  less  than  three,  nor  more  than  six 
school  committeemen,  in  each  district,  whose  duty  it  shall  be 
to  assist  said  superintendents  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
establishment  of  schools  for  their  respective  districts. 

VI.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  if  any  person  who  shall  be 
thus  appointed  to  serve  as  superintendent,  shall  refuse  or  neg- 
lect to  do  so  after  having  accepted  this  appointment,  he  shall 
forfeit  and  pay  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars,  to  be  recovered  by 
action  of  debt,  in  any  court  of  record  in  this  State;  and  such 
penalty,  when  recovered,  to  be  paid  over  to  the  president  and 
directors  of  the  literary  fund,  and  to  be  appropriated  to  the 
literary  fund;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  county  attorney 
for  the  State,  to  prosecute  suit  in  all  such  cases,  for  and  on 
behalf  of  the  president  and  directors  of  the  literary  fund. 

VII.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  in  any  county  where  a  ma- 
jority of  the  votes  have  been  for  common  schools,  and  a  cer- 
tificate of  the  same  has  been  furnished  by  the  sheriff  to  said 
superintendents  of  common  schools,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  superintendents  to  transmit  the  same,  with  a  certificate 
of  the  number  of  school  districts  in  their  respective  counties, 
to  the  president  of  the  literary  fund. 

VIII.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  in  every  county  in  the 
State,  where  the  vote  shall  be  in  favor  of  common  schools,  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  said  county  courts,  after  the  first  terms 
that  shall  happen  after  the  first  Monday  in  January,  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  forty,  a  majority  of  the  justices  being 
present,  to  levy  a  tax  to  the  amount  of  twenty  dollars  for  each 
district  in  said  county,  in  the  same  manner  that  other  county 
taxes  are  now  levied  for  other  county  purposes,  to  be  paid  over 
to  the  school  committee  of  the  respective  districts,  upon  the 
certificate  of  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  superintendents. 

IX.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  forty  dollars  out  of  the  net 
income  of  the  literary  fund,  for  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  thirty-nine,  is  hereby  appropriated  to  each  dis- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     143 

trict  in  said  counties  where  the  vote  shall  be  in  favor  of  the 
establishment  of  common  schools,  which  shall  be  paid  by 
the  public  treasurer,  upon  the  warrant  of  the  governor,  upon  the 
certificate  of  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  superintendents  of 
said  counties,  that  taxes  have  been  levied  to  the  amount  of 
twenty  dollars  for  each  school  district  in  their  respective  coun- 
ties and  that  schoolhouses  have  been  erected  in  each  district 
sufficient  to  accommodate  at  least  fifty  scholars. 

X.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  every  county  which  shall 
refuse  or  neglect  to  levy  a  tax,  and  build  the  schoolhouses 
herein  specified,  shall  at  any  time  hereafter  be  entitled  to  re- 
ceive the  forty  dollars  hereby  appropriated  to  each  district, 
upon  complying  with  the  terms  hereinbefore  specified. 

XI.  Be  it  further  enacted,  that  if  in  taking  the  next  census 
of  the  United  States,  Congress  shall  fail  to  provide  for  ascer- 
taining the  number  of  inhabitants,  and  especially  of  white 
children,  in  the  several  school  districts  of  North  Carolina,  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  governor,  as  president  of  the  board  of 
common  schools,  to  make  such  arrangement  with  the  marshal 
of  the  United  States  for  the  district  of  North  Carolina,  or  with 
his  deputies  in  the  several  counties  or  with  such  other  person 
or  persons  as  he  may  deem  proper,  to  cause  such  census  to  be 
ascertained,  together  with  any  other  information  which  he 
may  deem  important  to  the  establishment  of  a  just  and  equal 
system  of  common  schools  throughout  the  State:  and  to  com- 
municate the  same  together  with  a  full  report  of  the  returns  of 
the  superintendents  in  the  several  counties  and  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  board  of  common  schools  under  this  act. 

XII.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  county  trustee,  or  the  agent  of  public  accounts  in  each 
county,  to  transmit  to  the  governor  as  president  of  the  board 
of  common  schools,  a  full  and  accurate  statement  of  the  whole 
amount  of  taxes  levied  and  collected  in  his  county  for  the 
years  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirty-nine  and  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty  (excepting  the  public  reve- 
nues paid  into  the  public  treasury  by  the  sheriffs),  specifying 
in  such  statement  what  were  the  subjects  from  which  taxes 
were  levied  and  how  much  from  each  source  of  taxation;  also 
a  full  and  true  account  of  the  disbursements  of  the  moneys  so 
collected,  showing  specially  what  amounts  have  been  paid  for 


144    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  prosecution  of  insolvent  criminals,  and  their  maintenance 
in  jail;  and  that  such  statements  shall  be  returned  to  the  gov- 
ernor on  or  before  the  first  day  of  December,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  forty;  and  if  any  county,  trustee,  or  other 
agent  of  public  accounts  shall  fail  to  make  return  as  aforesaid, 
he  shall  forfeit  and  pay  the  sum  of  two  hundred  dollars,  to 
be  added  to  the  fund  for  common  schools;  and  it  shall  be  the 
especial  duty  of  the  solicitor  of  each  county  to  sue  for  the 
same  if  any  failure  shall  occur  in  his  county. 

The  educational  campaign  waged  in  the  spring  and 
summer  of  1839,  previous  to  the  elections  in  August, 
showed  a  healthy  and  widespread  sentiment  in  favor  of 
schools.  Among  the  discussions  the  newspaper  com- 
ments are  of  considerable  interest.1  The  Raleigh  Star 
pointed  out  the  educational  backwardness  of  the  State 
and  urged  the  people  to  spread  the  sentiment  for  schools. 
It  made  a  peculiarly  strong  appeal  to  parents :  — 

They  have  here,  no  matter  what  may  be  their  poverty,  a 
system  which  offers  to  them,  in  addition  to  the  free  education 
of  their  offspring,  the  highest  gratification  which  a  patriotic 
feeling  parent  can  desire  —  that  of  seeing  their  children  en- 
dowed with  sound  learning,  established  in  good  morals,  and  quali- 
fied for  the  responsible  duties  of  popular  government.  To  those 
poor  youth  of  our  State  who  are  aiming  at  honor  and  eminence, 
the  appeal  to  embrace  the  advantages  of  this  system  comes 
with  twofold  power.  Their  ignorance  is  not  to  them  a  reproach 
—  nor  will  they  acquire  learning  under  this  system  as  pen- 
sioners upon  the  public  bounty.  [The  system  recommended 
itself  as  worthy  of  confidence,  continued  the  editorial.]  "Sup- 
port it,  if  you  would  strengthen  the  pillars  of  representative 
government:  Abandon  it,  if  you  would  quench  that  Prome- 
thean fire  which  returned  the  light  of  freedom  in  the  western 
world!" 

~  The  Carolina  Watchman  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  "seven  eighths  of  the  money  paid  as  county  taxes 

1  See  Coon,  Public  Education  in  North  Carolina,  1790-1840,  a 
Documentary  History,  vol.  n,  pp.  893  jf. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      145 

by  the  people  of  North  Carolina  is  laid  out  in  payment 
for  court-houses,  jails,  whipping-posts:  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  insolvent  persons,  and  for  bringing  offenders 
to  justice";  and  argued  that  the  school  tax  would  not  be 
a  burden.  The  Raleigh  Register  also  argued  in  favor  of 
adopting  schools,  declaring  that  education  would  found 
"on  a  secure  and  permanent  basis  the  welfare  and  honor 
of  the  State,"  decrease  the  number  of  dangerous  dema- 
gogues, and  advance  the  prosperity  of  the  State.  The 
Ruiherfordton  Gazette  and  the  Newbern  Spectator  likewise 
lent  their  influence  in  favor  of  the  plan  for  schools  and 
answered  some  of  the  arguments  of  the  opponents. 
Moreover,  individual  citizens  and  county  officers  were 
energetic  in  the  campaign  to  secure  a  favorable  vote  on 
the  subject  throughout  the  State. 

Elections  to  ascertain  the  voice  of  the  people  on  the 
subject  of  schools  were  held  in  August,  1839.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  counties  adopted  the  scheme  outlined  by 
the  school  law,  approving  the  principle  of  supporting 
schools  by  a  combination  of  local  taxation  and  the  in- 
come from  the  literary  fund.  The  plan  failed  to  be 
adopted  in  seven  counties:  in  Rowan,  Lincoln,  Yancey, 
and  Davidson  in  the  west,  and  in  Edgecombe,  Wayne, 
and  Columbus  in  the  east.  Those  counties  which  voted 
for  schools  were  to  levy  a  tax  amounting  to  $20  for  each 
school  district  which  was  to  be  supplemented  by  twice 
that  amount  from  the  proceeds  of  the  literary  fund. 

The  sum  of  $1200  was  immediately  raised  by  local 
taxation  for  school  support  which  was  supplemented  by 
the  sum  of  $2400  from  the  literary  fund,  making  a  total 
of  $8600  of  public  funds  which  went  at  once  to  support 
the  schools.1  The  long  agitation  for  schools  had  now 
»  See  p.  97. 


HC  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

passed,  and  the  State  was  beginning  her  noteworthy 
ante-bellum  educational  career. 

The  actual  condition  of  affairs  in  the  State  when  the 
first  school  law  went  into  effect  is  vividly  given  by  Dr. 
Calvin  H.  Wiley  who  became  the  first  superintendent  of 
schools  in  North  Carolina.  Writing  in  1881  he  said : l 

According  to  the  census  of  1840,  one  third  of  our  adult 
whites,  by  their  own  statements  to  the  enumerators,  were  un- 
able to  read  and  write.  This  is  one  fact.  By  the  side  of  this  was 
the  fact  that  our  sisters  had  nearly  outgrown  us  in  population 
and  improvements,  and  yet  it  was  well  known  to  some,  and  is 
now  a  matter  of  common  information,  that  no  part  of  the  world 
enjoyed  greater  natural  advantages.  Our  resources  from  soil 
and  climate,  from  minerals  and  timber,  fisheries  and  water 
power  were  varied  and  immense;  our  colonial  and  revolution- 
ary history  and  traditions  were  honorable;  from  the  establish- 
ment of  American  independence  there  was  no  purer  govern- 
ment on  earth  than  that  of  our  own  State  and  municipal 
system,  and  society  was  moral,  peaceful,  and  secure.  .  .  . 

But  development  everywhere  around  us  was  more  rapid 
than  here,  and  thus,  comparatively,  our  course  was  downward. 
We  labored  under  one  disadvantage,  and  that  was  the  want  of 
streams  navigable  into  the  interior;  but  in  other  places  rail- 
roads were  superseding  rivers  as  commercial  highways.  The 
exuberant  soil  and  cheap  lands  of  the  West  allured  immigrants, 
and  rapidly  covered  that  vast  region  with  industrious  people; 
but  there  was  no  such  exodus  from  other  states  as  from  ours, 
and  some  of  our  Northern  sisters,  with  sterile  lands  and  harsh 
climate,  were  in  the  van  of  improvement,  while  States  south  of 
us,  under  scorching  suns  and  enveloped  in  a  malarial  atmos- 
phere, were  not  only  outstripping  us,  but  constantly  draining 
us  of  our  capital  and  enterprise.  .  .  . 

Concerning  the  introduction  of  the  school  system  Dr. 
Wiley  said:  — 

1  "History  of  the  Common  Schools  of  North  Carolina,"  in  the 
North  Carolina  Educational  Journal. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     147 

This  population  was  tenacious  of  old  habits,  conservative  to  , 
the  point  of  stubbornness,  with  no  neighboring  precedents  or 
examples,  and  no  persons  trained  under  such  systems.  The 
experiment  was  an  absolute  novelty  in  this  region,  the  cause 
occupied  little  of  the  thoughts  of  Southern  statesmen,  and  it 
began  among  people  inured  to  light  taxes  and  the  less  inclined 
to  be  taxed  for  education  from  the  fact  that  there  was  a  large 
school  fund.  The  accumulation  of  the  fund  was  a  practical  and 
strong  teaching  against  current  taxation,  and  since  its  incep- 
tion the  principle  of  distribution  was  changed  from  the  basis 
of  white  to  that  of  federal  population,  and  thus  an  element  of 
sectional  jealousy  and  strife  was  added  to  other  inherent  trials. 
The  idea  of  a  charity  system  was  connected  with  it,  rendering  ' 
it  obnoxious  to  many  interested  in  it,  and  there  were  no  ap- 
pliances for  the  instruction  and  training  of  the  vast  number  of 
managers  and  teachers  immediately  needed,  while  many  of  the 
"old  field"  instructors,  as  the  teachers  of  primary  subscription  * 
schools  were  called,  received  it  with  jealousy,  prepared  to 
make  war  upon  it. 

From  time  to  time  the  school  law  was  revised  or  sup- 
plemented with  a  view  to  improvement,  the  first  act  of 
this  kind  being  passed  in  January,  1841,  for  the  "better 
regulation  of  the  common  schools."  By  this  law  the  net 
annual  income  from  the  literary  fund  was  to  be  distrib- 
uted to  the  various  counties  on  the  basis  of  their  federal , 
population,  and  the  county  court  was  authorized  to  levy 
a  school  tax  not  to  exceed  one  half  of  the  estimated 
amount  which  the  county  was  entitled  to  receive  from 
this  source.  Three  district  trustees  were  to  be  elected  by 
popular  vote  for  every  district  in  the  county  and  these  * 
officers  were  to  have  general  charge  of  the  local  schools 
—  to  provide  the  houses,  take  the  school  census,  employ 
teachers,  and  visit  the  schools.  The  curriculum  included 
"any  branch  of  English  education,"  and  the  schools  % 
were  open  to  all  white  children  between  five  and  twenty- 
one  years  of  age.  Counties  which  rejected  the  schools  in 


148    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

1839  were  by  this  act  given  opportunity  to  vote  on  the 
matter  again  with  the  same  privileges  and  rights  allowed 
under  the  original  act.  Counties  voting  against  schools 
were  to  have  invested  for  them  by  the  literary  board 
whatever  sums  they  would  have  received  under  the  ra- 
tio of  federal  population.  Teachers  were  exempted  from 
road,  military,  and  jury  duty  while  teaching.  A  penalty 
of  $50  was  prescribed  for  neglect  of  any  duty  on  the  part 
of  county  officers. 

The  chief  of  the  many  obvious  defects  of  the  system 
during  its  early  years  was  the  lack  of  any  efficient  cen- 
tral supervision.  Until  1853,  when  Dr.  Calvin  H.  Wiley 
became  superintendent,  the  literary  board  was  the  chief 
executive  head  of  the  schools;  during  this  time  the  cham- 
pions of  education  labored  blindly,  the  system  being  left 
very  largely  to  the  direction  of  local  officials,  who, 
though  interested,  were  not  fitted  by  training  or  experi- 
ence to  guide  the  work  wisely.  Many  other  evils  grew 
out  of  this  fundamental  defect.  Returns  of  school  statis- 
tics from  the  counties  were  irregular  and  incomplete  and 
published  reports  of  educational  progress  were  rare  as  a 
result.  There  was  no  provision  for  special  reports  from 
the  literary  board,  and  information  on  the  subject  of 
schools  was  lacking.  Different  counties  developed  differ- 
ent habits  in  the  control  of  their  schools  with  the  result 
that  there  was  little  tendency  to  encourage  a  general 
state  system.  Moreover,  the  permissive  character  of  the 
legislation  was  a  serious  evil.  The  law  left  it  to  the  coun- 
ties to  say  whether  or  not  schools  would  be  adopted,  and 
since  the  plan  was  a  novelty,  many  of  the  counties  took 
their  time  in  disposing  of  the  matter.  It  took  six  years 
after  the  first  schools  were  established  for  all  the  coun- 
ties to  adopt  the  system.  And  as  late  as  1844  the  justices 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      149 

in  some  of  the  counties  which  had  adopted  schools 
failed  to  levy  a  school  tax  on  the  ground  that  the  law 
made  it  a  discretionary  rather  than  an  imperative  duty 
to  do  so.  The  idea  of  charity  which  attached  to  the  com- 
mon schools  also  hindered  their  progress,  helping  "to 
raise  a  barrier  between  the  upper  and  lower  classes  of 
society.  It  seemed  as  if  these  schools  were  to  erect  a 
fence  between  the  two.  It  prevented  many  from  send- 
ing their  children  to  these  schools,"  and,  declared  Dr. 
Wiley,  kept  many  intelligent  people  from  taking  any 
active  part  in  their  management. 

The  friends  of  the  schools  soon  saw  the  defects  of  the 
system  and  repeatedly  urged  legislative  correction. 
Until  1853  there  was  no  way  to  ascertain  the  number  of 
schools  in  operation  or  any  other  facts  concerning  them; 
"for  there  were  no  means  by  which  the  system  could 
observe  its  own  deficiencies,  ascertain  its  own  progress, 
and  record  its  own  experience."  To  remedy  the  permis- 
sive provision  for  local  taxation,  Governor  Graham  in 
1848  suggested  that  the  counties  be  required  to  raise 
one  half  of  the  amount  to  be  received  from  the  literary 
fund  before  being  entitled  to  the  appropriation  from 
that  source.  The  literary  board  also  believed  such  a  re- 
quirement essential  to  the  success  of  the  schools,  say- 
ing:— 

It  seems,  however,  to  be  expedient  to  require  of  each  county 
imperatively  to  raise  by  local  taxation,  annually,  a  sum  equal 
to  at  least  one  half  of  that  received  from  the  State,  to  the  end 
that  schools  may  be  maintained  a  sufficient  portion  of  each 
year  in  the  several  districts,  and  to  withhold  from  any  county 
her  share  in  the  State's  distribution  until  her  chairman  shall 
make  the  report  now  required  of  him  by  law. 

The  requirement  was  not  made,  however,  and  this 


150     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

defect  persisted  throughout  the  ante-bellum  period  and 
for  many  years  longer. 

The  change  in  the  principle  of  distribution  of  the  in- 
come from  the  literary  fund  was  also  unfortunate.  By 
the  act  which  created  this  endowment  in  1825  the  basis 
of  distribution  of  the  income  was  that  of  the  free  white 
population.  By  act  of  January,  1841,  this  basis  was 
changed  to  that  of  federal  population.  Not  only  did  this 
change  add  an  element  of  sectional  jealousy,  but,  as  Gov- 
ernor Manly  suggested  in  his  message  to  the  Legislature 
in  1860,  the  change  carried 

on  its  face  a  violation  of  the  spirit  and  object  of  the  injunction 
of  the  constitution ;  is  a  breach  of  the  public  faith  given  by  the 
Legislature  of  1825 ;  is  at  variance  with  the  rule  in  other  South- 
ern States;  divides  the  fund  not  according  to  public  necessity, 
but  the  wealth  of  the  people,  and  is  in  itself  unequal  and  unjust. 

Another  difficult  problem  confronting  the  school  sys- 
tem was  that  created  by  the  jealousy  of  the  academies 
and  "old  field"  schools  which  were  numerous  in  the 
State  in  1850.  The  important  place  occupied  by  these 
schools  may  be  seen  from  a  description  of  them  made 
by  Dr.  Wiley  during  his  superintendency.    They  were 

taught  by  persons  widely  variant  in  character  and  qualifica- 
tions. Some  of  these  were  seminaries  of  learning  of  a  high 
order,  conducted  by  men  of  mark  in  their  day,  and  whose 
labors  have  exerted  a  wide  and  lasting  influence  for  good,  not 
only  in  this  but  in  many  other  States;  but  the  large  majority 
of  teachers  instructed  only  in  the  elementary  branches  of 
spelling,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  English  grammar 
was  not  taught,  perhaps,  in  a  majority  of  the  schools,  and 
geography  as  a  general  thing  was  an  unknown  science.  The 
textbooks  in  every  branch  were  few,  unattractive,  and  often 
very  defective;  but  one  good  result  of  the  want  of  readers  was 
the  general  use  of  the  holy  scriptures,  and  especially  of  the  New 
Testament.    The  teacher,  in  most  cases  a  law  to  himself  and  a 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     151 

neighborhood  oracle,  knew  little  of  the  methods  of  his  brethren 
in  other  places,  and  never  regarded  himself  as  an  element  of  a 
general  system;  and  his  progress  was  only  in  the  mechanical 
art  of  writing,  and  from  years  of  practice  many  became  mas- 
ters in  penmanship  and  naturally  looked  with  contempt  on 
their  brethren  of  a  new  generation  whose  qualifications  were 
mental  and  who  had  not  spent  a  lifetime  in  learning  to  make 
graceful  curvatures  and  flourishes  with  the  quill. 

A  further  description  made  in  1855 l  furnishes  other 
interesting  facts  concerning  this  type  of  school :  — 

The  schoolhouses  were  few  and  far  between,  located  in  the 
more  thickly  settled  neighborhoods,  and  bad  as  our  common 
schoolhouses,  not  at  all  equal  to  them  as  a  general  thing  in 
comfort  and  convenience  of  arrangement,  while  there  was  not 
a  house  of  any  kind  expressly  dedicated  to  the  purposes  of 
teaching  for  every  ten  miles  square  of  territory  in  the  State.      ***** 

The  teachers  as  a  class  were  indifferent  scholars;  and  I  say 
this  with  high  respect  for  a  race  among  whom  there  were  some 
useful  and  devoted  public  servants  and  benefactors.  But  much 
as  we  complain  now,  salaries  then  were  a  good  deal  lower  than 
what  they  now  are;  and  even  had  they  been  equal  or  larger, 
the  advantage  in  this  respect  would  still  belong  to  the  modern 
cash  incomes,  promptly  paid,  over  the  uncertain  earnings, 
which  were  often  long  delayed  and  part  of  which  was  very 
frequently  paid  in  barter.  There  were  a  great  multitude  of 
little  collections  to  make,  and  men  of  active  business  habits 
were  not  eager  to  engage  in  a  calling  whose  small  profits  were 
as  hard  to  collect  as  they  were  to  make.  The  lazy,  the  lame, 
the  eccentric,  the  crippled,  were  but  too  often  the  "old  field 
teachers";  and  while  many  of  them  could  not  write  their 
own  "articles"  (as  agreements  between  teachers  and  parents 
were  called),  a  collection  of  those  written  by  the  masters  would 
form  a  literary  curiosity  as  unique  in  style,  spelling,  and 
chirography  as  any  contribution  of  the  kind  that  could  now  be 
made  by  any  class  of  teachers. 

The  studies  pursued  were  spelling,  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic;  and  if  those  who  applied  themselves  to  them  in  the 

1  Leg.  Doc.,  Session  1854-55. 


152    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

old  school  succeeded  better  as  men  and  women  than  those 
who  now  study  in  our  common  schools,  it  is  another  illustra- 
tion of  the  advantages  of  early  hardships,  while  the  praise  is 
due  mainly  to  the  energy,  industry,  and  perseverance  of  the 
pupils  and  not  to  the  schools. 

Grammar  and  geography  were  almost  wholly  unknown  in  the 
best  of  these  schools,  and  many  of  our  middle-aged  people 
who  now  read  the  newspapers  teeming  with  news,  from  the 
four  corners  of  the  earth,  all  knit  together  with  railroads  and 
telegraphs,  feel  and  complain  of  their  ignorance  of  the  latter 
study,  and  would  give  much  to  be  able  to  trace  upon  the  map 
the  connections  and  bearings  of  countries  formerly  seldom 
heard  of  and  now  mixed  up  with  their  nearest  political  and 
religious  interests  and  affecting  the  prices  even  of  their  produce 
and  labor. 

The  method  of  teaching  was  extremely  primitive;  to  look  on 
the  book  and  make  a  decent  droning  noise  of  any  kind,  not  out 
of  the  common  key,  would  insure  immunity  from  the  all-potent 
rod,  while  this  habit  of  noise,  pleasant  as  it  is  as  a  reminiscence, 
because  it  was  the  music  of  our  early  years,  was  anything  else 
than  an  advantage  to  those  who  really  wished  to  bend  their 
minds  to  study.  Hence  all  these,  and  all  who  claimed  to  be 
such,  were  allowed  to  pursue  their  studies  out  of  doors;  and 
among  the  white  heads  with  which  the  sunny  landscape  would 
blossom,  perhaps  one  in  every  ten  would  be  following  out  some 
useful  train  of  thought  or  diving  into  the  mysteries  of  Dil- 
worth  and  Pike.  He  would  "work  out  the  sums"  for  all  the 
others,  and,  as  blackboards  were  unknown,  the  scholar  had  but 
to  run  in,  hold  up  his  slate  to  the  teacher,  get  an  approving 
nod,  and  return  to  his  amusements.  There  were  no  lectures, 
few  explanations,  no  oral  instruction;  to  get  through  the  book 
was  the  great  end,  and  to  whip  well  the  paramount  means. 
Few  and  indifferent  as  these  schools  were,  they  were  not  gen- 
erally kept  for  a  longer  term  than  the  great  majority  of  com- 
mon schools  now  are,  and  the  attendance  was  equally  uncertain 
and  irregular.  The  schools  were  generally  limited  to  a  Quarter 
of  three  months  during  the  coldest  part  of  the  winter,  and  as 
families  with  two  to  six  children  would  subscribe  half  a  scholar, 
the  house  would  often  be  jammed  with  sixty  students  and  as 
often  hold  fifteen  or  twenty. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     153 

Half  a  scholar!  Why,  can't  we  remember  when  five  children 
would  biennially  get  the  benefit  of  the  teaching  due  half  a 
scholar  for  three  months;  that  is,  when  one  and  a  half  months' 
schooling  every  year,  or  every  two  years,  would  be  divided 
among  three  to  five  children  making  six  to  ten  days  or  more 
apiece!  The  good  old  times!  which,  divested  of  all  romance, 
of  all  the  tender  fancies  which  naturally  cluster  around  the 
recollections  of  all  childhood,  were  times  which  tried  the  soul 
of  those  who  wished  to  gain  a  good  education  and  which  throw 
their  still  lingering  shadows  upon  the  present  age. 

Progress  toward  reform  began  to  be  made  in  1850  by 
Governor  Manly  and  other  friends  of  the  schools.  In 
his  message  to  the  Legislature  that  year,1  the  governor 
criticized  the  school  system  for  deficiencies  in  organiza- 
tion, accountability,  and  general  management.  He 
said:  — 

For  a  period  of  ten  years  about  $90,000  have  been  placed 
annually  in  the  hands  of  the  various  school  committees  of  the 
State,  a  sum  larger  than  the  whole  amount  of  the  State's 
revenue  paid  into  the  public  treasury  during  that  period. 
This  large  sum,  forming  an  aggregate  of  nearly  a  million  of 
dollars,  has  within  this  brief  period  been  spent,  and  yet  no 
adequate  provision  has  been  made,  much  less  enforced,  for 
even  informing  the  people  or  their  representatives  of  what  has 
become  of  it  or  how  it  has  been  spent. 

Other  charges  were  made  against  the  inefficiency  of 
the  system.  In  1849  the  governor  had  published  all  the 
laws  relating  to  education  and  distributed  them  through- 
out the  State,  together  with  an  appendix  of  precedents 
and  forms  for  the  convenience  of  the  school  officials. 
Under  the  law  the  chairman  of  each  board  of  county 
supermtendents  was  required  to  furnish  to  the  literary 
board,  within  the  first  two  weeks  of  November,  an  annual 
written  report  of  his  school  accounts  and  of  other  school 

1  Leg.  Doc.,  1850-51. 


154  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

statistics,  such  as  the  population,  enrollment,  and  length 
of  school  term.  Only  seven  officials  complied  with  the 
law  within  the  time  allowed;  and  at  the  time  the  gov- 
ernor reported  to  the  Legislature  in  1850  only  about 
half  of  the  counties  had  performed  the  duty.  For  the  in- 
complete returns  fully  $90,000  was  left  unemployed  in 
the  hands  of  the  county  officials;  and  probably  twice 
that  amount  for  school  purposes  lay  idle  in  the  entire 
State,  to  say  nothing  of  additional  amounts  in  the  hands 
of  former  officials.  The  discovery  of  this  condition  led 
the  governor  to  say,  continuing  his  message :  l 

It  may  be  safely  stated  that  thousands  of  dollars  remain 
from  year  to  year  in  the  hands  of  superintendents,  and  if  a 
rigid  settlement  were  enforced  the  public  would  be  astounded 
at  the  aggregate  sum  thus  withheld  from  its  legitimate  destina- 
tion. 

The  governor  attributed  the  "general  listlessness "  in 
the  State  to  the  absence  of  close  supervision,  and  urged 
the  immediate  appointment  of  a  central  officer  to  super- 
intend the  entire  system. 

The  condition  which  was  found  in  North  Carolina  in 
1850  is  strikingly  similar  to  the  condition  which  Gov- 
ernor Wise  called  attention  to  in  Virginia  in  1857.  It 
was  found  that  the  amounts  of  school  money  continu- 
ously in  the  hands  of  the  superintendents  of  schools  in 
that  State  were  more  than  one  third  of  the  total  amount 
paid  out  by  them  for  school  purposes.  Moreover,  on  the 
county  quotas  drawn  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  the 
county  superintendents  received  a  commission  of  five 
per  cent  and  also  had  continuous  use  of  at  least  one 
third  of  the  entire  quota  without  any  interest  charge. 

1  Page  20. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      155 

At  the  current  rate  of  interest  this  was  not  an  inconsider- 
able sum.  From  1852  to  1856  the  average  annual  sum 
expended  by  the  superintendents  was  about  $159,000, 
and  the  average  annual  balance  left  in  their  hands 
was  $52,678,  amounting  for  the  five  years  to  more  than 
$211,000  on  which  they  received  a  commission  of  five 
per  cent.  The  superintendents  also  had  the  use,  without 
interest  charge,  of  more  than  $52,000,  which  annually 
lay  unemployed  for  school  purposes.  Governor  Wise's 
criticism  drew  attention  to  the  evil  and  caused  immedi- 
ate reform  to  appear  urgent. 

Lack  of  central  supervision  accounted  for  the  chief 
weaknesses  of  the  ante-bellum  school  system  in  North 
Carolina.  Measures  for  the  appointment  of  an  execu- 
tive head  had  been  introduced  in  the  General  Assembly 
of  1848^9,  but  they  were  rejected.  By  acts  of  January 
29,  1849,  the  courts  of  pleas  and  quarter  sessions  were 
"authorized  and  empowered,  in  their  discretion,"  on 
recommendation  of  the  county  boards  of  superintendents, 
to  levy  annually,  when  the  school  tax  was  levied,  an 
additional  tax  not  to  exceed  $250  for  the  purpose  of 
"employing  a  suitable  and  competent  person"  to  visit 
the  schools  of  the  county,  under  rules  and  regulations 
to  be  prescribed  by  the  county  board.  Provision  for 
licensing  teachers  by  a  county  examining  board,  ap- 
pointed by  the  county  board,  had  also  been  made  two 
years  before.  There  was  still  urgent  need,  however,  for 
more  central  supervision  of  the  school  work  of  the  State. 
At  the  General  Assembly  of  1850-51,  Calvin  H.  Wiley, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  Legislature  from  Guilford 
County,  introduced  a  bill  which  provided  for  a  state 
superintendent,  but  the  measure  failed.  Two  years 
later  he  was  again  a  member  of  that  body  and  through 


156    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

his  influence  an  act  was  passed  creating  the  office  of 
superintendent  and  defining  his  duties.1 

This  new  officer  was  to  be  appointed  by  the  Legislature 
for  a  term  of  two  years  at  a  salary  of  $1500  to  be  paid 
out  of  the  literary  fund.  He  was  to  collect  accurate  and 
full  information  concerning  the  conditions  and  opera- 
tion of  the  schools  in  each  county  in  the  State;  to  inquire 
into  the  causes  which  promoted  as  well  as  those  condi- 
tions which  retarded  the  schools;  to  consult  and  advise 
with  teachers;  to  enforce  the  school  laws;  to  see  that 
the  school  funds  were  properly  applied;  to  report  to  the 
governor  annually  of  the  educational  progress  of  the 
State;  to  instruct  the  state  examining  committee  con- 
cerning the  proper  qualifications  of  teachers;  to  see  that 
returns  were  properly  made  from  the  various  counties; 
to  attend  meetings  of  the  state  board;  to  deliver  educa- 
tional addresses,  and  in  other  ways  promote  the  cause 
of  schools.  He  was  also  required  to  codify  the  educa- 
tional laws  of  the  State.  In  seeking  a  man  for  the  posi- 
tion the  Legislature  naturally  turned  to  Wiley  who  had 
been  so  influential  in  securing  the  legislation  which 
created  the  office,  and  who  was  qualified,  by  training 
and  experience,  as  well  as  by  his  interest  in  education, 
for  educational  leadership.  The  reorganization  of  the 
schools  under  his  direction  and  their  rapid  growth  dur- 
ing the  next  decade  will  be  treated  in  the  following 
chapter. 

1  Act  of  December  4,  1852. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     157 


REFERENCES 

Journals  of  the  House  and  Senate;  Public  Laws  of  North 
Carolina;  legislative  documents;  Coon,  Public  Education  in 
North  Carolina,  1790-1840,  a  Documentary  History;  Weeks, 
Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the  Common 
Schools  in  North  Carolina;  Smith,  History  of  Education  in  North 
Carolina. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  were  some  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  establish- 
ing a  school  system  in  North  Carolina  before  1840? 

2.  Why  is  the  period  from  1840  to  1852  called  the  "experi- 
mental period"? 

3.  Compare  the  school  laws  of  this  period  with  the  present 
law  of  the  State. 

4.  Criticize  the  principle  of  school  support  in  North  Caro- 
lina during  this  early  period. 

5.  Note  Wiley's  comment  on  the  introduction  of  the  school 
system  in  1840.   (Page  147.) 

6.  When  did  your  county  adopt  the  plan  provided  for  in  the 
first  school  law? 

7.  What  were  the  actual  educational  conditions  in  the  State 
in  1840? 

8.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  academies  toward  the  new 
system? 

9.  What  was  the  chief  weakness  of  the  school  system  es- 
tablished by  the  law  of  1839? 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY  (1853-1865) 

In  the  preceding  chapter  it  was  noted  that  the  second 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  beginning  in 
the  United  States  of  a  period  of  educational  develop- 
ment which  is  marked  by  a  growing  tendency  to  de- 
mocratization. The  close  of  the  first  half  of  that  century 
is  distinguished  for  an  educational  awakening  which  is 
unique  in  the  history  of  this  country.  But  this  revival, 
so  frequently  and  conspicuously  located  in  New  England, 
where  it  was  most  noticeable,  was  not  confined  exclu- 
sively to  any  one  section  of  the  country.  Attempted 
reforms  in  educational  theory  and  practice  were  but  a 
part  of  the  general  reform  program  in  the  development 
of  democratic  ideals.  Educationally  the  storm  center  of 
this  reform  was  perhaps  in  Massachusetts  and  Connec- 
ticut, where  Horace  Mann  and  Henry  Barnard  were 
conspicuous  leaders  and  where  educational  progress  was 
rather  spectacular.  But  a  gradual  change  from  English 
ideals,  transplanted  here  in  colonial  days,  was  taking 
place  in  other  sections  of  the  country  as  well  as  in  New 
England  during  this  period.  Awakened  sentiment  for 
popular  education  appeared  in  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
and  Michigan,  and  in  some  of  the  Southern  States. 
But  slavery  and  its  natural  hindrances  to  a  rapid  de- 
velopment in  public  education,  and  the  absence  of  a 
strong  middle  class  in  the  South,  somewhat  delayed  the 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        159 

revival  of  education  in  that  region.  And  yet  there  the 
ground  for  a  reorganization  of  educational  effort  was 
being  rapidly  and  properly  prepared,  public  opinion 
was  being  educated,  statesmen  of  vision  and  broad  edu- 
cational traditions  appeared  who  were  eager  to  enlarge 
and  extend  educational  facilities,  and  a  general  move- 
ment for  free-school  systems  was  rapidly  gaining  on  the 
eve  of  the  war.  But  for  that  strife  and  its  disastrous 
results  the  educational  historian  would  have  a  differ- 
ent story  to  tell  of  the  South  and  her  ante-bellum  edu- 
cational efforts. 

The  educational  revival  in  North  Carolina  was  in 
large  measure  promoted  and  strengthened  by  the  leader- 
ship of  Calvin  H.  Wiley;  and  the  history  of  public  educa- 
tion in  the  State  from  1853  to  the  war  is  in  the  main 
his  biography  and  the  history  of  his  noteworthy  educa- 
tional achievements.  Wiley  was  already  widely  known 
and  popular  in  the  State  when  he  became  superintend- 
ent of  the  schools,  having  already  had  an  extensive  and 
varied  experience.  He  was  born  in  Guilford  County, 
February  3,  1819,  of  Scotch-Irish  descent.  As  a  boy  he 
showed  an  extraordinary  intellectual  ambition  for  the 
time  and  was  given  whatever  educational  opportunity 
conditions  afforded.  He  was  sent  to  Caldwell  Institute 
near  his  home,  where  he  was  prepared  for  the  state 
university,  from  which  he  graduated  with  the  class  of 
1840.  Later  he  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  located  in  Oxford,  Granville  County,  for  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession.  In  addition  to  his  legal  duties  he 
became  interested  in  journalism  and  edited  the  Oxford 
Mercury  from  1841  to  1843.  A  few  years  later  he  was 
offered  the  editorship  of  a  Whig  newspaper  in  Charlotte, 
but  this  position  he  declined.   In  1851  he  became  asso- 


160    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA, 

sociate  editor  of  the  Southern  Weekly  Post,  a  newspaper 
published  in  Raleigh  and  devoted  to  civic,  educational, 
and  industrial  improvement.  In  1850  he  entered  poli- 
tics as  a  Whig  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  it  was  in 
this  capacity  that  he  began  certain  educational  reforms 
which  finally  won  for  him  an  enviable  reputation  as  an 
educational  statesman  of  rare  vision  and  qualities  of  lead- 
ership. A  brilliant  career  doubtless  awaited  him  as  a 
politician  and  statesman,  but  he  retired  from  that  field 
of  service  at  the  age  of  thirty-three  to  become  the  first 
superintendent  of  the  schools  of  the  State.  Though  a 
Whig,  he  was  elected  to  his  position  by  a  large  majority 
of  a  Democratic  Legislature,  in  December,  1852,  and 
assumed  the  duties  of  his  office,  January  1,  1853. 

The  absence  of  any  effective  supervision  between 
1840  and  1852  made  his  task  peculiarly  difficult.  From 
fragmentary  reports  found  here  and  there  before  1853, 
it  is  clear  that  county  officials  were  notoriously  negli- 
gent of  their  duties,  a  defect  which  continued  for  several 
years  after  Wiley  became  superintendent,  in  spite  of  his 
efforts  at  improvement.  Moreover,  teachers  were  scarce, 
poorly  equipped,  and  migratory,  and  the  great  diversity 
of  habits  among  the  people  of  the  State  made  reasonable 
uniformity  in  school  affairs  well-nigh  impossible.  But 
from  the  day  Wiley  entered  the  office  until  1866,  when 
it  was  abolished,  conditions  so  improved  that  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  in  1861  the  State  laid  just  claim  to 
educational  leadership  in  the  entire  Southern  States. 
This  was  accomplished  largely  through  the  resourceful- 
ness, versatility,  and  indefatigable  toil  of  the  superin- 
tendent. 

During  the  thirteen  years  of  Wiley's  incumbency  he 
labored  congistently  for  a  complete  reorganization  and 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY         161 

improvement  of  the  educational  forces  of  the  State;  and, 
considering  the  obstacles  against  which  he  worked,  his 
achievements  challenge  favorable  comparison  with  those 
of  Mann  and  Barnard.  His  first  great  care  was  to  arouse 
interest  in  the  cause  of  popular  education,  and  this  he 
did  by  means  of  his  annual  tours  through  the  State. 
These  educational  campaigns  extended  through  all  the 
counties  from  Murphy  in  the  extreme  western,  to  Cur- 
rituck Court-House  in  the  eastern,  part  of  North  Caro- 
lina, the  trips  usually  being  made  by  private  convey- 
ance and  at  Wiley's  personal  expense.  During  his  first 
year  in  office  such  campaigns  called  for  fully  half  of 
his  salary.  Later,  however,  facilities  for  travel  improved 
and  less  time  and  money  were  required  for  this  part 
of  his  duties.  While  on  these  lecture  tours  he  did  not 
always  receive  the  encouragement  which  his  sacrifices 
and  the  cause  for  which  he  labored  deserved.  But  his 
courageous  heart  was  never  daunted.  Before  the  out- 
break of  the  war  his  leadership  was  so  greatly  appreci- 
ated that  his  services  were  in  demand  not  only  in  the 
State,  but  calls  frequently  came  to  him  from  other 
States  for  lectures,  addresses,  and  educational  advice.1 
Virginia,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia  sought  to  copy 
the  educational  example  of  North  Carolina,  and  Wiley 
was  invited  to  appear  before  the  Legislature  of  Georgia 
for  the  purpose  of  aiding  that  State  in  improving  its 
school  system. 

Wiley's  task  was  not  easy,  however:  there  was  much 
misinformation  concerning  public  education,  many 
misconceptions  of  the  work  which  the  superintendent 
was  trying  to  promote,  and  too  often  a  healthy  educa- 
tional spirit  was  lacking.  The  system  was  not  without 
1  See  p.  63. 


162    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

its  enemies  who  made  attacks  both  on  the  schools  and 
on  Wiley;  sectional,  partisan,  and  sectarian  prejudices 
also  increased  the  difficulty  of  management.  There  were 
fears,  which  even  the  superintendent  seems  to  have 
entertained,  that  the  law  of  1852  would  be  repealed. 
Rumors  to  this  effect  were  especially  current  in  Decem- 
ber, 1854.  But  the  fears  were  without  substantial  foun- 
dation and  Wiley  was  reelected  without  any  opposition. 
Through  all  these  troubles,  however,  the  energetic  and 
faithful  educator  so  directed  the  educational  system  as 
to  discover  its  friends  and  strengthen  the  feeble-hearted. 
He  had  also  to  "purge"  the  idea  of  public  education 
"of  the  fatal  taint  of  charity  once  adhering  to  it,"  and 
to  lift  it  "from  the  position  of  a  beneficence  to  a  class  to 
that  of  a  fundamental  interest  of  all  the  State."  These 
efforts  met  with  encouraging  success  from  the  start.  He 
was  soon  able  to  decrease  the  danger  threatened  by 
politics  and  denominationalism,  to  enlist  the  interest  of 
academies,  high  schools,  and  colleges,  and  to  retain  the 
admiration  and  friendship  of  his  influential  political 
opponents. 

Much  of  the  superintendent's  time  was  taken  up  with 
mere  routine.  His  correspondence  with  school  officers 
alone  was  enormous,  and  at  a  time  when  typewriters 
and  fountain  pens  were  not  in  use.  Moreover,  he  was 
not  allowed  a  clerk  to  aid  him  in  a  position  heavily  bur- 
dened with  the  routine  of  exacting  clerical  details,  but 
was  forced  to  draw  liberally  on  his  own  meager  salary 
to  make  provision  for  this  part  of  his  duties.  But  he 
made  use  of  the  public  press  as  freely  as  possible  and 
through  articles  in  the  various  state  papers  was  able  to 
give  suggestions  to  teachers  and  to  instruct  the  school 
officers  in  the  local  communities. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        163 

Many  of  the  conditions  which  faced  the  superintend- 
ent when  he  began  his  work  in  January,  1853,  are 
described  in  his  first  report  which  appeared  in  January 
of  the  following  year:  — 

The  first  officer  of  the  kind  in  the  State  —  expected  by  some 
partial  friends  to  do  more  than  it  was  possible  for  mortal  to  do, 
while  other  honest  men  thought  it  was  impossible  to  do  any- 
thing —  seeing  in  the  light  of  the  past  but  a  dim  and  uncertain 
light,  and  in  the  condition  of  the  present  a  widespread  field  of 
apparent  chaos,  brooded  over  by  doubts  and  despondency,  it 
was  impossible  for  me  not  to  err. 

But  he  begged  the  public  to  be  charitable  and  to 
consider  the  difficulties  of  the  work,  urging  immediate 
legislative  remedy  of  the  defects  which  he  discovered. 
He  visited  about  half  of  the  counties  in  1853.  LHe  said 
in  his  report  for  that  year:  — 

I  determined  to  go  to  every  county  seat  in  the  State, 
and  during  much  of  the  past  year  I  have  been  traveling,  giv- 
ing notice  some  days  before  of  my  intended  visit.  .  .  .  My 
inquiries  from  various  parts  of  the  State,  from  Currituck  to 
Cherokee,  —  and  the  letters  and  returns  made  to  me  from 
officers  and  friends  of  the  system,  —  all  corroborate  this  state- 
ment. The  most  universal  information  given  is,  that  in  the 
past  year  a  new  start  has  been  taken,  and  new  life  has  been 
felt:  hope  and  animation  have  revived,  new  friends  have  been 
made,  and  old  friends  have  resolved  to  work  with  redoubled 
efforts. 

Certain  interesting  facts  concerning  the  progress  of 
schools  and  education  in  the  State  also  appear  in  this 
report.  In  1840  there  were  in  North  Carolina  2  colleges 
and  universities,  about  140  academies  and  grammar 
schools,  and  632  so-called  primary  or  common  (sub- 
scription) schools.  The  enrollment  in  these  institutions 
was  158  in  the  higher  institutions,  about  4398  in  the 
academies,  and  14,937  in  the  other  schools,  making  a 


164    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

total  of  19,483.  At  that  time  there  were  fully  57,000 
illiterate  white  adults  in  the  State.  In  1850  there  were 
13  institutions  for  higher  training,  and  perhaps  300 
academies.  The  number  of  primary  or  common  schools 
was  not  definitely  known.  The  enrollment  in  the  col- 
leges and  universities  and  in  the  academies  had  greatly 
increased  by  1850  as  had  also  attendance  at  the  com- 
mon schools.  In  that  year  100,591  white  children  were 
attending  some  educational  institution  in  the  State. 
During  the  decade  from  1840  to  1850  the  white  popula- 
tion increased  only  12  per  cent,  but  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  children  attending  schools  was  nearly  500 
per  cent.  In  1853,  when  the  first  official  returns  of  the 
work  of  the  common  schools  were  made,  there  were  fully 
2500  common  schools  in  North  Carolina  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  about  95,000.  "I  am  fully  warranted,"  declared 
the  superintendent,  "in  asserting  that  the  average  ig- 
norance among  the  generation  now  coming  on,  will  be 
at  least  fifty  per  cent  less,  or  only  one  half  as  great  as 
among  those  now  on  the  stage  of  active  life  in  North 
Carolina."  The  school  population  of  the  State  at  that 
time,  however,  numbered  nearly  195,000. 

In  1853  there  were  82  counties  in  the  State  and  2828 
school  districts.  All  the  counties  made  more  or  less 
complete  reports  except  Chowan,  Currituck,  Jackson, 
McDowell,  Madison,  and  Tyrrell.  From  two  of  these, 
Jackson  and  Madison,  which  were  new  counties,  re- 
ports were  not  expected,  as  they  were  still  under  partial 
control  of  the  parent  counties,  Haywood  and  Buncombe, 
and  had  not  assumed  independent  educational  organi- 
zations. Schools  were  taught  in  2169  districts  in  1853. 
The  reports  showed  that  the  great  majority  of  the 
teachers  were  men  and  that  the  average  monthly  salary 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        165 

was  about  eighteen  dollars.  The  average  term  was 
about  four  months.  The  sum  of  $180,000  in  public 
funds  was  expended  in  that  year  for  school  support,  of 
which  amount  $120,000  came  from  the  literary  fund  and 
$60,000  from  local  taxation.1 

The  scarcity  of  teachers  in  the  State  when  Wiley 
became  superintendent  was  another  difficulty  which 
hindered  rapid  progress  of  education.  But  from  his  in- 
structions to  the  county  examining  committees  it  was 
evident  that  the  superintendent  meant  every  year  to 
elevate  the  standard  of  teaching  qualifications.  Examin- 
ing committees  had  been  provided  for  since  1847;  and  by 
the  act  creating  the  office  of  superintendent  the  principal 
features  of  the  previous  act  were  retained  and  improved. 
These  examining  boards  were  required  to  hold  three 
meetings  every  year  to  examine  applicants  to  teach. 
Certificates  were  valid  for  only  one  year  at  the  time  and 
in  the  counties  where  issued,  and  only  those  teachers 
who  were  properly  certificated  could  participate  in  the 
benefits  of  the  public  school  funds.  The  superintendent 
constantly  urged  strict  conformity  to  the  law  so  that 
the  teachers  would  gradually  improve.  He  also  sought 
to  encourage  women  to  become  teachers.  He  believed, 
for  certain  classes,  women  would  "  make  the  best  teach- 
ers. They  are  more  patient,  more  easily  win  the  affec- 
tions of  the  young,  and  are  more  likely  to  mold  to 
virtuous  and  refined  sentiments,  the  plastic  nature  of 
childhood." 

As  a  further  means  of  improving  the  professional  quali- 
fications of  the  teachers  he  urged  the  formation  of  library 
associations.  "How  many  teachers  in  North  Carolina 
have  read  one  single  book  giving  an  account  of  the  ex- 
1  See  p.  98. 


166    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

perience  and  improvements  in  their  profession  in  other 
places?"  he  asked,  in  calling  attention  to  the  need  of 
legislative  assistance  in  this  important  work.  "If  only- 
one  third  of  the  common-school  teachers  of  North  Caro- 
lina could  be  induced  to  read  the  most  indifferent  work 
on  teaching,  what  a  vast  change  would  be  perceptible! 
Opposition  to  new-fangled  innovations,  is  well  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  but  .  .  .  the  experience  of  all  the  world  does 
us  no  good,  as  we  know  nothing  of  any  experience  but 
our  own.  Scatter  judiciously  over  the  State  good  copies 
of  any  good  work  on  teaching  and  it  will  create  a  revolu- 
tion." Wiley's  continued  effort  to  encourage  improve- 
ment among  the  teachers  finally  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  state  teachers'  association.1 

Three  things  necessary  to  the  success  of  the  school 
system  were  discussed  at  length  in  Wiley's  second  report 
made  in  December,  1854. 2  First  of  all,  there  was  needed 
"  a  stricter  and  more  uniform  and  patient  attention  to 
the  execution  of  the  law."  In  the  second  place,  the 
improvement  of  teachers  by  "some  systematic  means," 
called  for  "careful  attention,  wise  oversight,  and  con- 
stant exertion."  "There  has  been  great  complaint  in 
regard  to  them;  and  I  know  it  to  be  a  fact,  that  this 
incompetency  and  their  want  of  fidelity  in  many,  many 
cases,  have  given  just  cause  of  complaint.  This  is  a  real 
sore,  and  one  of  the  severest  which  now  afflicts  our  sys- 
tem; and  the  character  of  these  teachers  has  done  much 
to  disgust  a  large  class  of  citizens  with  our  system, 
and  to  cause  intelligent  people  to  refuse  to  send  to  the 
schools,  or  to  interest  themselves  in  their  success." 

The  third  thing  which  called  for  attention  was  what 
Wiley  called  "discipline,"  a  term  which  he  used  not  in  a 
1  See  p.  176.  2  Leg.  Doc,  Ssssion  1854-55. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        167 

narrow  sense,  however.  By  it  he  meant  general  school 
organization,  and  in  his  discussion  of  this  "vital  point" 
he  urged  improvement  in  the  program  of  studies,  in  the 
classification  of  the  pupils,  in  equipment  and  apparatus, 
in  textbooks,  in  methods  of  teaching,  and  in  other  fea- 
tures of  the  system. 

How  often  do  I  hear  the  complaint  that  teachers  consider 
that  they  have  \ofill  out  merely  a  certain  number  of  days,  and 
make  it  their  greatest  object  to  kill  time  instead  of  improving 
it!  How  often  is  it  charged  that  our  old  routine  is  observed,  and 
no  bad  habit  forgotten  and  no  good  one  acquired !  How  often 
is  it  said  that  parents  are  put  to  expense  and  children  put  back 
by  a  constant  change  of  books,  while  there  is  no  effort  made 
to  classify  the  children,  and  a  school  of  fifty  scholars  will  have 
forty  classes,  each  class  thus  having  but  a  very  few  minutes  to 
recite  in,  and  the  teachers  no  time  for  lectures,  explanations 
or  oral  instructions.  Seven  hours  are  enough  for  school  hours 
in  the  twenty-four — and  ten  recitations,  fifteen  at  the  farthest, 
is  [sic]  as  many  as  can  be  well  made  and  heard  in  seven  hours, 
except  recitations  by  those  learning  their  letters. 

Here  he  advocated  that  the  teachers 

adapt  themselves  in  manner,  tone,  ideas,  and  illustrations  to 
every  age  and  every  grade;  and  from  the  child  learning  its 
letters  to  the  most  advanced  youth,  all  are  pleased,  all  are  at 
home,  and  all  are  interested,  all  learn  as  children  learn  in  the 
family  circle,  study  and  innocent  pleasure  being  so  blended 
that  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  they  are  making  pleasure  a  study 
or  study  a  pleasure. 

Of  course  we  will  not  reach  this  point  for  a  long,  long  time; 
but  we  can  have  blackboards  for  mathematical  recitations, 
we  can  have  public  examinations  to  interest  students  and 
parents,  and  try  the  capacity  of  teachers;  we  can  have  the 
state  looking  in  at  each  school  house,  and  its  voice  heard  daily; 
we  can  discard  antiquated  books,  books  with  new-fangled 
isms.  .  .  . 

There  is  evidence  that  the  schools  were  gradually 


168    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

gaining  the  sympathy  and  respect  of  the  educational 
and  political  forces  of  the  State:  — 

Professors  in  colleges,  male  and  female,  reposing  a  confidence 
for  which  I  am  grateful,  have  tried  to  strengthen  my  hands, 
and  I  have  felt  proud  of  the  fact  that  since  my  term  of  office 
began  common  schools  have  enlisted  interest  and  received 
respect  in  every  male  college  and  nearly  every  female  one  ia 
the  State,  and  from  the  conventions  of  both  political  parties. 
Such  influences  are  lasting  and  pervading;  they  must  in  time 
give  a  new  tone  to  every  society,  and  it  is  not  one  of  our  least 
misfortunes,  that  heretofore  college  professors  and  college  stu- 
dents, as  well  as  a  large  class  of  [other]  intelligent  people,  were 
either  indifferent  to  common  schools,  or  treated  them  with 
actual  contempt. 

A  decided  improvement  was  noticed  in  the  general 
operation  of  the  school  system  in  1854.  Most  of  the 
counties  made  returns  to  the  superintendent  showing 
that  salaries  were  gradually  increasing,  that  women  were 
slowly  entering  the  teaching  ranks,  and  that  there  were 
in  the  State  about  three  thousand  school  districts  and 
nearly  as  many  houses  in  most  of  which  schools  had 
been  maintained  during  the  year.  The  school  popula- 
tion and  enrollment  were  somewhat  larger  than  the 
year  before.  "The  information  generally  received  .  .  . 
is  that  the  schools  are  improving,  that  hopes  are  re- 
viving, interest  in  them  deepening  and  spreading,  and 
the  grade  of  teachers  being  elevated." 

Many  other  signs  of  improvement  were  evident  in  the 
superintendent's  third  annual  report  which  covered  the 
year  1855. l  The  official  returns  from  the  various  counties 
had  been  received  earlier  than  usual  and  were  fuller  and 
more  satisfactory.  There  was  a  gratifying  contrast  be- 
tween the  reports  for  that  year  and  the  previous  years, 

1  Leg.  Doc.  9,  Session  1856-57. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY         169 

and  a  noticeable  tendency  on  the  part  of  school  officers 
to  a  more  faithful  performance  of  their  duties.  The 
superintendent  had  examined  the  school  systems  of  other 
States  and  had  also  collected  the  opinions  of  officers  and 
teachers  at  home,  and  he  felt  encouraged  at  the  com- 
parisons. But  much  work  remained  to  be  done,  and  the 
task  was  delicate  and  difficult. 

Tender  nursing,  good  food,  and  regular  habits  in  the  system 
were  all-important:  every  change  was  to  be  closely  observed, 
every  irregularity  touched  with  a  most  cautious  hand,  every 
effort  used  to  make  the  schools  grow  in  efficiency  and  useful- 
ness as  well  as  in  public  affection.  ...  It  was  easy  to  give 
opiates  and  tonics :  but  how  was  the  glow  of  permanent  health 
to  be  infused  into  a  system,  not  mortally  sick,  but  wasted  and 
emaciated  with  obstinate,  complicated  chronic  disorders? 

In  spite  of  the  imperfections  of  the  system,  however, 
"  there  has  been  a  real  revolution,  an  entire  and  radical 
change  of  things  for  the  better  in  the  last  three  years." 
The  standard  of  the  teachers  had  "unquestionably 
greatly  advanced,"  and  fully  "nine  tenths  of  the  children 
of  the  State,  it  is  hoped  and  believed,  attend  the  com- 
mon schools  at  some  time  or  another  —  and  certainly 
fifteen  sixteenths  of  our  youth  are  getting  an  education 
of  some  sort." 

Seventy-five  counties  reported  their  school  statistics 
on  time  and  sixty  of  these  in  conformity  to  the  law. 
Fifteen  counties  were  deficient  in  certain  minor  details 
of  information,  and  ten  lacked  the  certificates  of  the 
finance  committees  and  of  the  clerk  of  the  county  court 
to  the  financial  statement.  Fully  130,000  children  were 
enrolled  in  2800  schools,  and  about  2000  teachers  had 
been  regularly  licensed  during  the  year.  This  was  a 
noteworthy  evidence  of  progress.     Four  years  before 


170    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

there  were  probably  not  more  than  two  hundred  teach- 
ers in  the  State  who  had  been  once  examined  and  certif- 
icated. It  was  estimated,  however,  that  in  spite  of  this 
improvement  there  were  approximately  five  hundred 
who  were  teaching  without  legal  certificates  in  1855. 
The  average  school  term  was  four  months  and  "the 
average  salary,  everything  considered,  is  nearly  as  high 
as  it  is  anywhere  in  the  United  States."  Besides  being 
"certain  cash,"  the  salaries  of  teachers  were  much 
"higher  than  the  wages  of  teachers  in  the  old-fashioned 
country  schools  were  —  the  school  houses  are  better, 
and  the  average  scholarship  higher,"  and  the  teachers 
were  annually  improving.  The  superintendent  declared 
that  female  teachers  in  the  common  schools  of  North 
Carolina  "received  higher  salaries  than  in  any  other 
State  in  the  Union."1 

There  is  everywhere,  more  confidence,  more  hope,  more  life, 
more  public  spirit,  a  greater  sense  of  responsibility  —  and 
the  tendency  this  way  is  increasing.  Inveterate  difficulties  in  a 
number  of  counties  have  been  healed,  it  is  hoped  and  believed 
permanently  cured.  With  the  improvement  of  teachers,  wages 
have  advanced,  the  number  of  school  districts  not  taught  has 
decreased,  and  the  average  time  of  keeping  schools  open  has 
been  lengthened,  and  the  number  of  children  taught  greatly 
increased  —  while  colleges,  academies  and  high  schools  have 
been  induced  to  lend  their  influence  in  favor  of  instead  of 
against  this  great  system,  and  politicians  and  parties  have 
come  to  recognize  in  it  the  great  hope  of  the  country. 

1  The  statistics  which  he  gave  in  this  connection  showed  the  average 
monthly  salaries  of  men  and  of  women  teachers  in  the  public  schools 
of  several  States  to  be  as  follows:  Connecticut,  men,  $18.50,  women, 
$8.50,  including  board;  Illinois,  men,  $25,  women,  $12;  Indiana,  men, 
$23.01,  women,  $15.62;  Iowa,  men,  $19.61,  women,  $9.39;  Massachu- 
setts, men,  $37.76,  women,  $15.88;  New  Hampshire,  men,  $17.38, 
women,  $7.83;  Pennsylvania,  men,  $19.25,  women,  $12.03;  Wisconsin, 
men,  $21.10,  women,  $10.87;  North  Carolina,  men,  $21,  women,  $18, 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        171 

Certain  means  of  general  and  permanent  improve- 
ment in  the  school  system  were  suggested.  The  school 
law  needed  to  be  made  more  generally  known  and  its 
objects  more  widely  understood.  A  more  rigid  enforce- 
ment of  the  laws  was  also  advocated.  There  was  need 
of  pervading  "the  public  mind,  especially  the  young 
mind  of  the  State,  with  more  accurate  and  interesting 
information  concerning  its  history,  its  resources,  and 
its  institutions."  The  professional  qualifications  of 
the  teachers  also  needed  to  be  gradually  elevated.  But 
there  appeared  no  specific  remedy  by  which  this  could 
be  immediately  accomplished;  curative  means  neces- 
sarily had  to  be  slow.  Normal  schools  could  not  im- 
mediately solve  the  problem  —  the  schools  themselves, 
the  superintendent  believed,  were  the  agency  through 
which  an  adequate  supply  of  comparatively  competent 
teachers  could  be  furnished.  Finally,  there  was  need 
for  an  interchange  of  ideas  and  needs  of  the  teachers 
and  the  various  school  officers,  and  some  organ  or  chan- 
nel of  communication  was  recommended.  To  supply  this 
the  superintendent  urged  the  formation  of  a  state 
teachers'  association  and  the  establishment  of  an  edu- 
cational journal. 

The  most  important  means  of  training  teachers  for 
the  public  schools  of  the  State  during  this  period  was 
furnished  by  Braxton  Craven  at  Normal  College,  in 
Randolph  County.  He  became  principal  of  Union  In- 
stitute in  1842  and  immediately  his  interest  in  all  phases 
of  public  education,  especially  that  of  training  teachers 
for  the  public  schools,  began  to  grow.  At  that  time  there 
was  no  executive  head  of  the  school  system  in  the  State 
and  teachers  were  without  the  means  of  preparation  and 
training  for  the  important  work  which  they  were  called 


172    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

upon  to  do.    Of  his  fitness  for  training  teachers,  Pro- 
fessor E.  C.  Brooks  says:  — 

It  is  quite  probable  that  no  man  of  his  generation  was  a 
more  thorough  student  of  educational  problems  and  had  a 
keener  insight  into  the  needs  of  the  common  schools  than  had 
Braxton  Craven.  The  greatest  essential  need  in  America  in 
the  forties  was  for  teachers  who  knew  how  to  organize  a  school, 
classify  pupils,  and  instruct  them  in  the  elementary  branches. 
Craven  was  a  tireless  worker,  omnivorous  reader,  and  a  care- 
ful student.  He  collected  ail  the  information  on  those  subjects 
to  be  found  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and  in  1848  he  was 
ready  to  begin  a  plan  of  teaching  training  at  Union  Institute 
that,  within  a  few  years,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  entire 
State.  In  introducing  the  normal  feature  into  his  institution 
he  was  following  the  practices  in  New  York  and  other  States, 
where  teacher-training  classes  were  organized  in  connection 
with  academies  and  supported  in  part  by  state  appropriations. 
That  feature  was  popular  in  Union  Institute,  for  in  1850  he 
wrote  that  the  normal  class  that  had  been  in  training  the 
previous  year  was  very  large.1 

In  1850  Craven  published  in  pamphlet  form  a  very 
comprehensive  plan  for  teacher  training.  Discussing 
needed  reforms  in  education  in  the  State,  he  said:  "We 
must  have,  normal  schools.  We  can  never  reach  any 
eminence  without  them.  All  endowments  and  enact- 
ments will  be  in  vain  without  skillful  workmen  to  put 
them  into  operation."  The  treatise  was  widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  State  and  created  a  strong  opinion  in  favor 
of  legislative  aid  to  the  training  of  teachers.  When  the 
General  Assembly  met  in  1850  Union  Institute  was 
changed  to  Normal  College  and  authority  was  given  the 
institution  to  issue  certificates  to  its  graduates,  as  "suf- 
ficient evidence  of  ability  to  teach  in  any  of  the  com- 
mon schools  in  this  State,  without  reexamination  of  the 

1  "Braxton  Craven  and  the  First  State  Normal  School,"  in  Trinity 
Alumni  Register,  vol.  I. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY         173 

county  committees."  Two  years  later  a  new  charter  was 
granted  Normal  College,  with  the  governor  and  the  state 
superintendent  ex  officio  president  and  secretary,  re- 
spectively, of  the  trustees,  and  a  loan  of  $10,000  was 
made  to  the  institution  from  the  literary  fund.  The  fol- 
lowing year  the  college  opened  with  195  students,  and 
the  teacher-training  courses,  now  the  most  important 
work  of  the  institution,  required  three  years  for  com- 
pletion. From  this  time  until  1859,  when  the  name  was 
changed  to  Trinity  College  and  all  state  relations 
severed,  Normal  College  continued  its  work  of  preparing 
teachers  for  the  public  schools  of  North  Carolina.1 

In  this  great  work  Braxton  Craven,  who  was  instinc- 
tively a  teacher,  was  the  moving  spirit.  Teaching  was 
almost  a  passion  with  him;  he  regarded  it  as  an  art  great 
and  difficult  to  master.  Much  of  his  educational  phi- 
losophy is  sound  to-day: 

He  is  the  best  teacher  in  any  given  case  who  arouses  the 
student  to  energetic  action,  directs  his  efforts  in  the  right  way 
to  consistent,  worthy,  and  noble  ends;  causes  him  to  form 
manly,  tasteful,  and  proper  habits,  and  creates  within  him  a 
thirst  for  knowledge  and  personal  excellence  that  will  bear 
him  firmly  through  all  the  allurements  of  dissipation,  the 
dazzling  splendor  of  prosperity,  or  the  deep,  dark  gloom  of 
poverty. 

And  again  he  says:  — 

If  a  teacher  cannot  clothe  with  fascination  the  symbolic  col- 
umns of  the  spelling  book,  the  maxims  and  stories  of  the  reader, 
the  principles  and  problems  of  arithmetic,  the  definitions  and 
exercises  of  grammar,  and  all  other  subjects  he  proposes  to 
teach,  he  has  embarked  in  the  wrong  profession,  and  should 
at  once  and  forever  abandon  that  for  which  he  is  not  qualified. 

1  Craven's  efforts  to  promote  public  education  led  him  into  educa- 
tional journalism,  and  in  18J0  he  began  publishing  the  Southern  Index, 


174    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

In  1855  the  school  law  was  revised  and  somewhat  im- 
proved though  its  principal  provisions  remained  prac- 
tically the  same  as  before.1  The  revision  was  intended 
largely  to  simplify  the  law,  to  provide  for  improving  the 
quality  of  the  teachers,  and  to  secure  more  faithful 
service  from  other  school  officers.  This  action  of  the 
Legislature  showed  a  healthy  public  sentiment  and  a 
ready  and  sympathetic  response  to  the  appeals  and 
exertions  of  the  superintendent.  Everywhere  his  in- 
fluence was  seen  in  the  supplementary  school  legislation. 
In  most  cases  he  was  the  author  of  the  school  laws  en- 
acted after  his  election  to  the  superintendency. 

The  fifth  report  on  the  work  of  the  schools  appeared 
in  January,  1858,  and  covered  the  year  1857.2  There 
was  much  evidence  that  the  schools  were  gradually  im- 
proving. "The  change  in  public  sentiment  among  all 
classes  of  the  people  is  marked  and  cheering,*'  said 
Wiley,  who  felt  greatly  encouraged.  Eighty  of  the 
eighty-five  counties  made  fuller  and  more  satisfactory 
reports  than  had  been  made  in  any  previous  years,  and 
the  returns  showed  marked  advancement.  The  school 
population  numbered  220,000  and  the  enrollment  in  the 
common  schools  was  150,000.  Several  thousand  more 
were  taught  in  academies,  select  and  private  schools,  at 
home,  and  in  Sunday  schools.  There  was  a  school  in 
every  district  and  a  schoolhouse  for  nearly  every  school. 

a  bi-monthly  sixteen-page  magazine  for  teachers.  It  had  a  short  life, 
however,  and  in  December  of  that  year  was  changed  to  the  Evergreen, 
a  purely  literary  magazine,  which  was  likewise  short-lived. 

1  Act  of  February  10,  1855. 

8  Wiley's  fourth  report  was  made  in  November,  1856,  soon  after  his 
third  report  appeared.  It  was  more  of  a  special  than  a  general  report 
and  dealt  largely  with  the  need  for  teachers'  library  associations  and 
with  the  importance  of  the  educational  journal,  which  first  appeared 
the  previous  September.   Few  new  or  important  statistics  were  given. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        175 

These  houses  are  in  reach  of  twenty-nine  thirtieths  of  all 
the  children  of  the  State.  It  is  now  a  fixed  habit  to  have  a 
school  every  year  or  once  in  every  two  years  at  these  houses; 
and  these  schools  are  taught  by  persons  of  whom  at  least  nine- 
teen twentieths  are  annually  examined  as  to  moral  and  men- 
tal qualifications  by  respectable  and  intelligent  committees  in 
the  counties  where  they  teach.  There  are  in  the  State  not 
less  than  three  thousand  five  hundred  schools  —  and  twenty- 
four  out  of  every  twenty-five  of  all  the  white  children  of  the 
State  are  obtaining  an  education. 

The  common  school  property  of  the  State  was  valued 
at  $350,000.  The  schools  were  operating  at  an  annual 
cost  of  $250,000,  ninety-five  per  cent  of  which  went  to 
pay  teachers'  salaries.1  The  number  of  teachers  exam- 
ined and  certificated  in  1857  was  2500. 2  The  superin- 
tendent believed  that  not  more  than  fifty  teachers 
were  employed  in  the  public  schools  who  did  not  have 
the  proper  licenses.  Three  fourths  of  those  legally  cer- 
tificated taught  grammar  and  geography.  The  average 
school  term  was  four  months,  the  average  monthly 
salary  paid  teachers  was  $24,  and  the  average  attend- 
ance was  about  forty  pupils  to  the  school. 

There  appeared  about  this  time  two  other  noteworthy 
signs  of  general  improvement  in  educational  conditions  in 
North  Carolina.  One  of  these  was  the  establishment  of 
an  educational  magazine  as  the  official  state  teachers' 
organ,  and  the  other  was  the  formation  of  a  teachers' 
association.  For  several  years  Wiley  had  advocated  the 
creation  of  these  auxiliary  agencies  and  finally  his  ef- 
forts were  crowned  with  success;  and  as  head  of  the 

1  Corrected  returns  show  that  about  $271,000  was  expended  on  the 
common  schools  in  1857. 

1  The  difference  between  the  number  of  teachers  and  the  number 
of  schools  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  many  teachers  frequently 
conducted  as  many  as  two  or  more  schools  in  a  year. 


176    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

school  system,  president  of  the  teachers*  association, 
and  editor  of  the  teachers'  journal,  he  served  the  State 
in  a  threefold  educational  capacity. 

The  organization  of  the  teachers,  officially  known  as 
the  "Educational  Association  of  North  Carolina," 
sprang  from  preliminary  teachers'  meetings  held  in 
Goldsboro  in  May,  1856,  and  in  Salisbury  the  following 
October.  Both  of  these  assemblies  were  large  and  har- 
monious and  were  attended  by  the  leading  teachers  and 
friends  of  education  in  the  State.  At  the  meeting  in 
Salisbury  a  permanent  association  was  formed,  and  the 
first  annual  session  was  held  in  Warrenton  in  July,  1857. 
At  this  time  the  constitution  was  formally  adopted  and 
plans  perfected  for  a  career  of  great  usefulness.  Several 
county  affiliated  teachers'  societies  immediately  ap- 
plied for  constitutions.  Other  annual  meetings  of  the 
association  before  the  collapse  of  the  Confederacy  were 
held  in  Statesville,  in  1858;  in  Newbern,  in  1859;  in 
Wilmington,  in  1860;  in  Greensboro,  in  1861;  and  in 
Lincolnton,  in  1862.  Wiley  was  the  chief  spirit  in  the 
formation  and  direction  of  the  organization  and  through 
his  leadership  the  cooperation  and  support  of  public 
men,  lawyers,  ministers,  and  teachers  were  secured  for 
public  education.  The  annual  meetings  were  filled  with 
discussions  of  normal  schools,  textbooks,  school  equip- 
ment, methods  of  teaching,  the  course  of  study,  grading 
the  schools,  and  other  important  subjects.  The  asso- 
ciation was  incorporated  by  the  Legislature  at  its  ses- 
sion in  1860-61, l  and  was  assisted  by  the  state  treasury 
to  the  amount  of  $600  a  year.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  it  was  rapidly  extending  itself  through  the  organiza- 
tion of  local  county  associations.  Through  this  agency, 
1  Act  of  February  23,  1861. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY         177 

as  through  educational  journalism,  the  superintendent 
was  developing  and  strengthening  the  common  school 
cause,  which  was  constantly  growing  in  popularity  and 
usefulness. 

Wiley  also  worked  to  secure  further  educational  ad- 
vancement for  the  state  through  the  North  Carolina 
Journal  of  Education  which  he  likewise  fathered  and 
fostered  with  marked  devotion.  In  this  auxiliary  agency, 
which  during  its  early  career  fluctuated  in  success,  Wiley 
not  only  put  much  time  and  energy  but  several  hundred 
dollars,  which  he  finally  lost.  The  plan  of  the  magazine 
was  outlined  in  the  superintendent's  report  for  1855. 
In  the  summer  of  1856  he  succeeded  in  selling  the  ad- 
vertising space  to  reputable  publishers  (G.  and  C.  Mer- 
riam  and  A.  S.  Barnes  and  Company)  for  a  sum  suffi- 
cient to  defray  the  entire  cost  of  thirty-five  hundred 
copies  of  a  quarterly  magazine  of  thirty-two  octavo 
pages.  The  superintendent  was  highly  gratified  at  its 
promise  of  success,  and  the  Journal  appeared  in  Sep- 
tember, 1856,  but  failure  to  retain  the  advertisers  caused 
it  to  suspend  after  the  first  year.  Meanwhile,  however, 
the  educational  association  was  formed  and  steps  were 
taken  to  promote  the  magazine  through  this  body. 
Under  its  auspices  the  Journal  began  to  appear  again 
in  January,  1858,  with  Wiley  as  editor-in-chief,  assisted 
by  J.  D.  Campbell  and  a  board  of  editors  representing 
all  the  educational  interests  of  the  State,  both  public  and 
private.  The  magazine  proved  unexpectedly  popular 
and  was  supported  alike  by  public-school  officials,  col- 
lege professors,  and  others  whose  contributions  on  edu- 
cational matters  helped  to  fill  its  pages.  Through  it 
Wiley  made  every  effort  to  advance  the  cause  which  was 
nearest  his  heart.  Legal  provision  was  made  in  1860  by 


178    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

which  copies  of  the  magazine  were  sent  to  all  school  of- 
ficers and  paid  for  by  the  public-school  funds,  and  its  in- 
fluence was  thus  widely  extended  throughout  the  State. 
The  Journal  continued  until  near  the  close  of  the  war 
when  difficulty  of  securing  paper,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  plant  in  which  the  magazine  was  printed,  forced 
it  to  suspend.  Considering  that  one  half  of  its  exchanges 
were  compelled  to  suspend  two  years  before,  it  is  indeed 
remarkable  that  the  publication  was  able  to  continue  so 
long  and  in  the  face  of  such  discouraging  difficulties. 

In  his  report  for  1858,  the  superintendent  said  of  these 
agencies:  — 

The  State  Educational  Association,  embracing  all  the  edu- 
cational interests  of  the  State,  is  now  on  a  firm  foundation; 
and  one  of  its  chief  objects  is  to  stimulate  the  cause  of  common 
schools.  Its  organ,  the  North  Carolina  Journal  of  Education, 
has  been  pronounced  by  competent  authority,  one  of  the  best 
periodicals  of  the  kind  on  the  American  continent;  and  while 
its  circulation  is  increasing  among  the  officers  and  teachers  of 
common  schools,  energetic  efforts  have  been  adopted  to  push 
it,  if  possible,  into  nearly  all  the  districts  of  the  State. 

Of  the  progress  of  the  schools  in  1858  the  superin- 
tendent said  in  his  sixth  report :  — 

Some  of  the  hopeful  manifestations  which  are  not  only  felt 
by  one  in  my  position,  but  can  also  be  made  appreciable  to  the 
common  apprehension  are:  First,  an  evidently  increasing 
sense  of  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  subordinate  officers. 
Secondly,  more  energetic  and  enlightened  action  on  the  part 
of  boards  of  county  superintendents.  Thirdly,  the  general, 
gradual,  but  certain  elevation  of  the  standard  of  teachers' 
qualifications.  Fourthly,  obvious  influences  for  good  among 
all  classes,  and  in  various  places,  caused  by  increasing  efforts  to 
disseminate  useful  information  and  statistics.  Fifthly,  the 
successful  formation  of  associations  intended  to  combine  the 
exertions  of  the  friends,  of  all  classes,  of  general  education. 
Sixthly,  the  general  disappearance  of  all  prejudices,  and  in- 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        179 

veterate  difficulties  arising  from  honest  prejudice,  and  from 
ignorance.  Seventhly,  an  increased  and  increasing  animation 
and  hopefulness  on  the  part  of  friends  of  the  cause  among  all 
ranks  of  society,  and  in  every  part  of  the  State. 

Most  of  the  counties  in  1858  made  official  returns  suf- 
ficiently complete  and  early  enough  to  enable  a  reliable 
estimate  of  school  conditions  to  be  made.  The  school 
population  now  numbered  approximately  225,000  and 
155,000  were  enrolled  in  3700  common  schools.  This 
estimate  was  "  based  on  certain  data  and  cannot  be  an 
exaggeration,"  the  superintendent  declared.  The  aver- 
age school  term  and  the  average  salary  paid  teachers 
were  practically  the  same  as  reported  the  previous  year. 
The  average  expenditure  for  each  county  was  $3114, 
and  the  total  for  the  State  about  $265,000.  A  continued 
improvement  was  evident  in  the  qualifications  for  teach- 
ers and  in  the  enforcement  of  the  law  on  certification. 
Concerning  the  success  of  the  system  reference  was  made 
to  the  schools  of  Madison  County,  "a rugged  mountain 
country,  as  broken,  perhaps,  as  any  part  of  the  peopled 
area  of  the  United  States.  It  has  no  navigable  streams, 
not  much  arable  soil,  or  mineral  wealth,  or  rich  pasture 
land  —  and  for  much  of  the  year,  the  climate  is  cold 
and  bleak."  The  school  population  of  this  county  was, 
males,  1226,  females,  1068;  and  1131  boys  and  884  girls 
were  attending  the  common  schools.  "What  a  light  is 
here  beaming  among  those  barren  and  craggy  heights !  " 
exclaimed  the  superintendent. 

Wiley's  seventh  report,  covering  1859, l  showed  re- 
turns from  eighty-one  counties.  The  five  delinquent 
counties  were  Alleghany,  Anson,  Haywood,  Johnston, 
and  Lenoir,  in  all  of  which  certain  incidental  causes 

1  Leg.  Doc.  9,  Session  1860-61. 


180  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

explained  the  failure  to  make  returns  on  time.  In  spite 
of  the  delayed  reports  from  these  counties  there  was  a 
manifest  improvement  in  the  character  and  efficiency 
of  the  local  school  officers  of  the  State.  The  school  pop- 
ulation in  seventy-four  counties  was  186,000,  and  for 
the  entire  State  it  was  estimated  at  230,000.  The  school 
attendance  in  seventy-seven  counties  was  108,000  with 
an  estimated  enrollment  for  the  entire  State  of  155,000. 
Seventy-nine  counties  reported  2758  schools  in  operation; 
seventy-one  counties  showed  that  2066  teachers  had 
been  licensed;  the  average  school  term  was  four  months, 
and  the  average  monthly  salary  paid  teachers  was  $28. l 
The  receipts  for  school  purposes  in  seventy  counties 
were  $279,000  and  the  expenditures  in  the  same  counties 
were  $235,000.  Local  school  taxes  collected  averaged 
about  $1238  to  the  county,  making  a  total  for  the  State 
of  more  than  $100,000;  and  expenditures  for  school  pur- 
poses averaged  about  $3300  to  the  county,  making  a 
total  for  the  State  of  about  $285,000.  There  was  a  grow- 
ing tendency  to  build  new  and  better  schoolhouses,  and 
improvement  in  the  qualifications  of  teachers  was  like- 
wise growing.  Among  the  recommendations  made  to 
the  Legislature,  the  superintendent  urged  the  State  to 
furnish  means  of  placing  the  Educational  Journal  and 
the  State  Teachers'  Association  on  a  firmer  foundation, 
and  to  elevate  the  standard  of  teachers  by  enlarging 
the  course  of  study,  by  requiring  more  thoroughness  in 
the  subjects  taught,  and  by  requiring  teachers  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  opportunities  offered  for  improvement 

1  A  comparison  of  the  average  monthly  salaries  paid  in  other 
States  at  this  time  is  suggestive:  Massachusetts,  $34.75;  Connecticut, 
$23.75;  New  Hampshire,  $19.72;  Ohio,  $20.42;  Wisconsin,  $20.97; 
Illinois,  $24.57. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        181 

through  the  Journal  and  the  state  and  county  educa- 
tional associations. 

The  eighth  annual  report  of  the  work  of  the  schools, 
for  1860,  appeared  a  little  more  than  two  months  before 
the  State  seceded.1  The  close  similarity  in  statistics 
in  this  and  in  the  reports  for  the  three  previous  years 
was  evidence  of  the  gratifying  regularity  of  the  opera- 
tion of  the  school  system.  Eighty-one  counties  reported 
statistics  for  the  year.  It  was  estimated  that  the  school 
population  numbered  221,000,  that  150,000  children 
were  enrolled  in  more  than  3000  schools,  and  that  more 
than  2700  teachers  had  been  licensed  during  the  year. 
It  was  also  estimated  that  more  than  $100,000  had  been 
collected  in  local  school  taxes.  The  school  term  was 
practically  the  same  as  in  1859,  but  the  average  monthly 
salary  paid  teachers  was  somewhat  less  than  in  the 
previous  year.2 

The  ninth  annual  report,  for  the  school  year  1861-62,3 
was  made  December,  1862, 4  and  showed  that  sixty -five 
counties  made  more  or  less  complete  official  returns  of 
school  statistics.  A  school  population  of  118,802  was 
reported  in  forty-six  counties,  and  fifty-nine  counties 
reported  a  school  attendance  of  52,018.  The  superin- 
tendent believed  that  65,000  children  were  actually 
enrolled  in  the  common  schools  of  the  State.  More 
than  1200  teachers  had  been  licensed,  and  more  than 
1500  schools  were  reported  in  operation,  with  an  aver- 
age term  of  nearly  three  months.  The  actual  disburse- 
ments for  common  schools  in  sixty  counties  amounted  to 

1  Leg.  Doc.  10,  Session  1860-61. 

*  In  1860  the  average  monthly  salary  was  $26. 

•  The  Legislature  of  1860-61,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  and  uni- 
formity, changed  the  school  year. 

4  Leg.  Doc.  9,  Session  1862-63. 


182    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

$117,924.  By  this  time  counties  had  been  released 
from  the  obligation  of  laying  taxes  for  schools,  and  the 
small  amounts  received  from  the  distribution  of  the  lit- 
erary fund  income  were  insufficient  to  maintain  schools 
as  long  as  usual.  The  superintendent  urged  on  the  local 
authorities  the  following  course  of  action:  to  keep  in 
perfect  order  the  framework  and  machinery  of  the  sys- 
tem; to  supply  the  places  of  male  teachers  called  to  the 
war  with  qualified  female  teachers,1  and  to  continue 
schools  wherever  competent  female  teachers  could  be 
secured;  to  license  only  the  competent  and  loyal  ones; 
and  to  maintain  as  high  a  standard  of  qualifications  as 
the  conditions  would  allow. 

In  spite  of  the  difficulties  caused  by  the  excitement  of 
the  times  and  the  absorbing  interest  in  the  war,  which 
naturally  decreased  the  attention  given  to  school  affairs, 
the  educational  machinery  continued  to  operate  with 
surprising  consistency.  The  schools  still  lived,  but 
official  returns  gradually  decreased  in  completeness.  In 
his  report  for  1863  2  the  superintendent  gave  statistics 
for  that  year  as  follows:  thirty-six  counties  reported  a 
school  population  of  95,259,  and  fifty  counties  reported 
35,495  children  in  regular  attendance  in  1076  schools; 
forty-four  counties  reported  872  teachers  who  had  that 
year  been  properly  certificated;  the  average  school  term 
was  three  months;  teachers'  salaries  averaged  $25  per 
month;  female  teachers  were  on  the  increase;  deprecia- 
tion of  the  currency  caused  financial  embarrassment  for 
the  schools;  and  on  account  of  the  more  reliable  class  of 
citizens  being  at  war,  active  district  committees  were 
difficult  to  secure.    With  all  these  obstacles,  however, 

1  Teachers  were  subject  to  conscription  in  North  Carolina. 
8  Leg.  Doc.  9,  Session  1863. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL   UNDER   WILEY        183 

in  the  darkest  hour  of  the  Confederacy,  with  every  nerve 
and  muscle  wrought  to  the  highest  tension  in  a  disas- 
trous and  unexampled  struggle  for  life,  the  State  still 
maintained  a  school  system  surprisingly  vigorous  and 
useful.  The  superintendent  believed  that  fully  50,000 
children  were  that  year  enrolled  in  the  common  schools 
of  the  State. 

Faith  in  the  schools  and  in  the  outcome  of  the  struggle 
led  Wiley  to  continue  his  annual  recommendations  to 
the  Legislature  and  his  suggestions  to  local  officers  for 
school  improvement.  The  great  defect  of  the  schools, 
according  to  the  superintendent,  was  their  horizontal 
character,  "furnishing  one  kind  of  education  for  children 
of  all  ages,  and  of  every  degree  of  advancement."  But 
the  schools  had  elevated  the  standard  of  popular  intel- 
ligence, and  had  increased  the  demand  for  higher  schools. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  teachers'  association  in  Newbern, 
in  1859,  graded  schools  and  teacher  training  were  among 
the  principal  subjects  discussed.  A  committee  was 
appointed  to  investigate  the  matter  of  graded  schools 
and  to  make  a  report  at  the  next  meeting.  A  plan  was 
accordingly  formulated  and  approved  by  that  body 
the  following  year,  and  a  bill  based  on  it  was  before  the 
Legislature  when  the  war  began.  Wiley  labored  for  the 
passage  of  the  measure,  but  its  permissive  character,  as 
well  as  many  other  defects,  finally  brought  the  plan  to 
naught.  A  similar  bill  was  introduced  in  the  Assembly 
in  1863,  passed  the  House,  and  was  reported  favorably 
by  the  Committee  on  Education  in  the  Senate.  But  lack 
of  time  forced  it  to  be  tabled,  and  there  the  measure 
rested  until  the  following  year,  when  an  act  to  grade  the 
schools  was  passed.1  In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted 
1  Act  of  December  23,  1864. 


184    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

that  just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  a  movement  was 
begun  to  establish  a  graded  school  at  Wilmington,  and 
an  enthusiastic  public  meeting  was  held  for  the  purpose 
in  April,  1860.  The  tendency  to  train  teachers  through 
institutes  was  also  rapidly  gaining  at  the  same  time.1 

A  wholesome  educational  sentiment  continued  dur- 
ing the  war  and  every  possible  effort  was  made 
to  foster  and  preserve  the  schools.  In  the  summer  of 
1861,  soon  after  hostilities  began,  the  press  of  the  State 
urged  renewed  efforts  to  prevent  a  suspension  of  the 
schools.  "In  the  name  of  the  good  people,  and  espe- 
cially the  children  of  the  State,  let  none  of  the  schools 
be  abandoned,  if  possible,"  advised  the  Raleigh  Stand- 
ard. And  the  Charlotte  Democrat  declared  that  "the  chil- 
dren of  the  State  must  be  taught  to  read  and  write,  war 
or  no  war."  In  November,  1864,  in  his  message  to  the 
Legislature,  Governor  Vance  said :  — 

The  subject  of  our  common  schools  is  one  which  I  beg 
you  will  not  forget  amid  the  great  concerns  of  war.  ...  I 
earnestly  recommend  to  your  consideration  the  whole  subject, 
and  especially  the  system  of  graded  schools  advocated  by  the 
superintendent,  for  which  memorials  will  be  presented  by  the 
literary  board  and  the  Educational  Association  of  North 
Carolina.  I  also  suggest  that  regular  teachers  be  exempted 
from  state  military  duty  whilst  employed  in  teaching.  Though 
fully  aware  of  the  importance  of  their  vocation,  I  have  not  felt 

1  The  first  institute  held  in  the  State  was  conducted  at  Graham,  in 
Alamance  County,  in  May,  1860.  The  work  was  in  charge  of  W.  H. 
Doherty,  who  conducted  a  private  school  at  Graham,  and  continued 
for  one  week.  Doherty  came  from  Antioch  College,  Ohio,  where  he 
had  been  associated  with  Horace  Mann,  and  opened  a  school  in  Gra- 
ham about  1855.  In  1861  he  went  to  Newbern  where  he  had  charge 
of  an  academy  which  also  had  a  normal  feature.  In  1859  the  Wilson 
Female  Seminary  had  normal  classes  and  the  Goldsboro  Female  Col- 
lege had  similar  work  in  1860. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL   UNDER   WILEY         185 

at  liberty  to  excuse  them  under  existing  laws.1  The  common 
schools  should  surely  be  kept  going  at  any  cost;  and  if  suf- 
ficient inducements  can  be  offered  to  disabled  soldiers  and 
educated  women  to  take  hold  of  them,  the  necessary  males 
should  be  exempted.  ...  It  is  with  pride  that  I  observe  the 
publication  in  our  State  of  various  new  schoolbooks,  creditable 
alike  to  the  authors  and  to  the  public  which  has  demanded 
them.  Our  great  system  of  common  schools  is,  after  all,  our 
only  true  and  solid  foundation  for  public  education  and  de- 
mands your  constant  and  fostering  care. 

Throughout  the  dark  days  the  schools  continued  to 
operate  with  unexpected  regularity  andj  consistency, 
and  as  late  as  April,  1865,  when  Johnston  surrendered, 
the  superintendent  was  receiving  official  returns  from 
the  various  counties.  But  the  gradual  depreciation  of 
Confederate  currency  and  the  loss  of  the  school  funds 
finally  brought  disaster  to  the  schools.  The  literary 
fund  had  remained  untouched  for  military  purposes, 
but  Confederate  securities  had  been  encouraged 
throughout  the  war,  and  it  was  difficult  to  change  the 
form  of  investments.  The  principal  of  the  school  fund 
was  invested  in  bank  and  railroad  stock  2  and  there  it 
seemed  reasonably  safe.  But  the  banks  had  themselves 
invested  heavily  in  Confederate  securities,  and  in  the 
wreck  which  came  to  the  banking  system  of  the  State 
at  the  close  of  the  war,  the  literary  fund  was  lost.  With 
it  went  the  principal  means  of  school  support  and  the 
basis  of  the  State's  creditable  school  system. 

\Yiley*s  eleventh  and  last  report  was  made  in  January, 

1  By  act  of  1863  college  professors  "and  teachers  in  academies  were 
exempted  from  service  in  the  home  guards."  Persons  "engaged  in 
editing  or  publishing  classical  or  common-school  books  and  all  persons 
actually  engaged  in  printing  or  binding  such  books"  were  also  ex- 
empted from  military  service. 

•  See  chap.  vi. 


186  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

1866,  *  but  little  information  concerning  the  operation 
of  the  schools  during  the  last  year  of  the  war  is  given. 
The  old  regime  was  rapidly  passing,  and  the  system  of 
schools  into  which  Wiley j  had  put  so  much  earnest  labor 
soon  collapsed  with  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy.  During 
the  dark  days  which  followed,  while  efforts  were  being 
made  to  reestablish  the  relations  of  the  State  with  those 
of  the  national  government,  other  matters  absorbed 
public  interest  and  schools  and  the  means  of  education 
received  little  attention.  With  the  constitutional  con- 
vention of  1868  and  the  process  of  congressional  re- 
construction, attention  turned  again  to  education.  The 
story  of  its  fortunes  and  the  operation  of  the  schools  dur- 
ing that  period  will  be  told  in  another  chapter. 

From  the  foregoing  treatment  of  public-school  educa- 
tion in  North  Carolina  it  can  be  seen  that  the  law  of 
1839  and  its  revisions,  in  spite  of  the  weaknesses  of  the 
system  thus  provided  for,  made  creditable  provisions 
for  educational  enterprise.  State,  county,  and  local 
district  organizations  were  formed  and  the  plan  of  school 
support,  by  a  combination  of  local  taxation  and  the 
income  from  the  literary  fund,  proved  well  suited  to  the 
conditions  of  the  time,  and  proved  popular  and  efficient. 
The  literary  fund,  as  was  seen  in  Chapter  VI,  stimu- 
lated a  healthy  sentiment  in  favor  of  local  taxation, 
which  was  rapidly  increasing  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 
It  was  estimated  that  more  than  $100,000  was  collected 
in  local  school  taxes  in  1860.  In  that  year  about  $280,000 
of  public  funds  was  expended  on  public-school  education. 
In  1859  the  estimated  school  population  was  230,000 
and  155,000  children  were  enrolled  in  school.  The  aver- 
1  Leg.  Doc.  47,  Session  1865-C6. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL   UNDER   WILEY        187 

age  monthly  salary  paid  teachers  was  $28,  and  the  aver- 
age school  term  was  four  months.  These  facts  appear 
especially  striking  when  it  is  considered  that  the  aver- 
age term  in  the  State  as  late  as  1900  was  less  than  in 
1860,  and  that  the  average  salary  paid  teachers  in  1900 
was  only  about  $22.50. 

The  educational  achievements  of  these  years  were 
due  in  large  measure  to  the  untiring  labors  of  the  super- 
intendent, and  to  his  genius  for  leadership  and  organi- 
zation. We  have  already  noted  his  threefold  educational 
services  as  superintendent,  editor  of  the  educational 
journal,  and  director  of  the  state  teachers*  organization. 
But  his  activities  were  not  confined  to  these  enterprises, 
however  extensive  in  reforms  they  may  have  been. 
Another  effective  means  of  disseminating  reform  and 
improvement  was  through  his  annual  reports  which  be- 
gan in  1854  and  continued  until  1866.  These  reports 
were  intended  to  give  information  concerning  the  condi- 
tion of  the  schools  and  the  progress  they  were  making; 
to  discuss  the  weaknesses  of  the  system  and  to  make  sug- 
gestions for  improvement;  and  finally  they  were  used 
as  a  means  of  creating  and  directing  public  opinion  on 
the  great  subject  of  universal  and  free  public  education. 
In  these  reports  and  in  Wiley's  prolific  writings  in  the 
North  Carolina  Journal  of  Education  are  found  his 
practical  educational  doctrines.  His  philosophy  of  edu- 
cation was  not  complicated.  Throughout  one  very  def- 
inite point  of  view  is  held:  that  public  education  is  the 
only  sure  and  safe  foundation  in  a  democratic  society, 
and  that  a  "  system  of  common  schools  for  a  great  and 
growing  state  is  a  vast  and  sublime  moral  organization." 
While  these  doctrines  may  now  appear  commonplace 
and  trite,  it  must  be  remembered  that  when  Wiley  urged 


188    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

them  they  were  not  familiar,  and  that  their  gradual  ac- 
ceptance in  North  Carolina  is  in  no  mean  measure  due  to 
the  work  of  her  pioneer  educational  statesman  and  leader. 

Through  his  textbooks  Wiley  rendered  still  another 
important  service  to  the  cause  of  education  in  North 
Carolina.  Before  his  election  as  superintendent  of  the 
schools  he  had  published  at  his  own  expense  The  North 
Carolina  Reader,  which  went  through  several  editions 
and  became  a  standard  in  the  schools  until  after  the 
war.  When  it  first  appeared  the  book  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  and  was  adopted  by  all  classes  of  teachers. 
One  of  the  noteworthy  services  rendered  by  the  book 
was  the  wholesome  spirit  which  it  created  and  fostered 
among  the  masses  of  the  people  of  the  State.  When  Wiley 
became  superintendent  he  disposed  of  his  interest  in  the 
work,  but  other  volumes  were  later  produced  under  his 
direction,  and  these  became,  along  with  the  first  book, 
very  extensively  used  as  readers  in  the  schools  during 
the  ante-bellum  period. 

Wiley's  educational  ideals  were  lofty.  He  believed 
that  education  should  be  universal,  free,  and  open  alike 
to  all,  both  rich  and  poor.  So  devoted  was  he  to  this 
principle  that  at  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  very  decided 
in  his  advocacy  of  the  education  of  the  freedmen.1  He 
also  believed  that  public  education  could  easily  be  so 
well  developed  that  aristocratic  ideas,  as  they  were 
reflected  in  the  patronage  of  private  schools,  would  die 
away  and  the  superiority  of  the  public  school  be  univer- 
sally recognized.  In  this  respect  he  shows  a  striking 
similarity  to  Horace  Mann.  Finally,  Wiley  was  deeply 
religious,  and  he  sought  to  apply  to  education  every- 
where the  ideals  of  the  Christian  faith. 

1  See  the  Greensboro  Patriot,  March  26,  1879. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER  WILEY        189 

Religion  and  education  must  go  together;  and  while  con- 
templating the  possibility  of  a  future  generation  of  North 
Carolinians  wholly  enlightened  and  universally  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves,  in  a  worldly  point  of  view,  I  cannot  but 
feel  a  deep  solicitude  that  it  should  not  be  an  infidel  genera- 
tion, devoted  to  Mammon,  and  ready  to  abase  itself  to  all 
the  strange  gods  which  the  wicked  inventions  of  men  may 
create.  ...  It  is  my  desire  that  all  children  shall  be  taught  to 
read,  and  taught  by  those  whose  lives  illustrate  the  beauties  of 
a  heart  disciplined  to  good ;  and  that  when  enabled  to  read  they 
be  allowed  to  read  for  themselves  the  revelations  of  Heaven's 
will  to  man. 

While  Wiley  achieved  much  in  the  stimulation  of  in- 
terest in  education  and  in  making  friends  for  the  caused 
his  work  did  not  stop  there.  He  was  a  practical  reformer 
and  was  concerned  with  the  material  as  well  as  with 
the  spiritual  side  of  education.  His  reports  were  full  of 
recommendations  and  suggestions  for  improvement  in 
the  school  machinery  and  the  material  equipment. 
Nothing  rejoiced  him  quite  so  much  as  to  be  able  to 
report  the  improvement  of  an  old  or  the  building  of  a 
new  schoolhouse.  He  was  likewise  eager  to  improve  the 
textbooks  in  use  and  to  develop,  by  scientific  training 
and  the  application  of  sound  methods  of  teaching,  a  body 
of  intelligent  and  active  teachers.  In  most  of  these  re- 
spects he  was  able  during  his  thirteen  years  of  distin- 
guished service  to  effect  noteworthy  reforms  and  to 
place  the  schools  in  the  sympathies  of  all  classes.  He 
showed  familiarity  with  the  systems  of  public  schools 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  and  saw  much  merit  in 
the  Prussian  system  to  which  he  frequently  referred. 

He  remained  in  office  after  the  war  until  the  ordi- 
nance of  October  19,  1865,  of  the  constitutional  con- 
vention, declared  vacant  all  state  offices  which  were  in 
existence  April  26  of  that  year.    His  final  report  was 


190    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL.  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

made  in  January  of  the  following  year,  and  two  months 
later  the  office  of  superintendent  of  schools  was  abol- 
ished by  the  Legislature.1  He  soon  retired  to  private 
life.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  general  agent  of  the 
American  Bible  Society  for  a  part  of  Tennessee,  and 
later  for  the  Carolinas,  in  which  work  he  continued  until 
his  death.  In  1872  and  again  four  years  later  he  was 
proposed  as  the  Conservative  candidate  for  the  super- 
intendency  of  schools.  In  the  former  year  he  was  kept  out 
by  political  disability,  and  in  the  latter  he  refused  to  be 
a  candidate  because  the  public  schools  had  been  brought 
into  politics.  During  his  remaining  years  he  was  active 
in  local  educational  matters.  He  was  largely  instrumen- 
tal in  establishing  the  graded  school  in  Winston  and 
served  as  chairman  of  the  school  board  of  that  city  until 
his  death,  January  11,  1887. 

REFERENCES 

House  and  Senate  Journals;  Public  Laws  of  North  Carolina; 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
1853-66;  North  Carolina  Journal  of  Education,  1856-63; 
Brooks,  "Braxton  Craven  and  the  First  State  Normal  School," 
in  Trinity  Alumni  Register,  vol.  i;  Weeks,  Calvin  Henderson 
Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the  Common  Schools  of  North 
Carolina;  Smith,  History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina; 
Knight,  The  Influence  of  Reconstruction  on  Education  in  the 
South. 

1  Act  of  March  10,  1866. 


EDUCATIONAL  REVIVAL  UNDER   WILEY        191 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  In  what  respects  were  the  educational  problems  which 
faced  Horace  Mann  similar  to  those  which  confronted 
Calvin  H.  Wiley? 

2.  In  what  respects  were  their  educational  achievements 
similar? 

S.  Compare  Wiley's  philosophy  of  education  with  Mann's 
educational  philosophy. 

4.  Compare  Wiley's  theory  of  education  with  the  theory  of 
education  held  by  Braxton  Craven. 

5.  What  contribution  did  Braxton  Craven  make  to  public 
education  in  North  Carolina? 

6.  What  were  Wiley's  most  permanent  contributions  to 
public  education  in  North  Carolina? 

7.  What  influence  did  his  work  in  North  Carolina  have  on 
public  education  in  other  Southern  States? 

8.  Why  were  so  few  women  engaged  in  teaching  in  North 
Carolina  before  the  war? 

9.  What  were  the  defects  of  the  school  system  between 
1853  and  1860? 

10.  What  percentage  of  the  school  population  was  enrolled 
in  the  public  schools  just  before  the  war?  What  percent- 
age of  the  school  population  is  in  school  to-day? 

11.  What  progress  was  made  in  educational  journalism  in 
North  Carolina  before  the  war? 

12.  What  other  auxiliary  educational  agencies  were  at  work 
in  the  State  during  the  ante-bellum  period?  -^ 

13.  What  attempts  were  made  to  establish  public  high 
schools  in  North  Carolina  before  1860? 

14.  What  were  the  facilities  for  training  teachers  in  the  State 
before  the  war? 


CHAPTER  X 

ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE 

The  actual  practice  of  any  educational  system  is 
always  more  difficult  to  describe  than  the  theory  and 
laws  on  which  the  system  is  built,  and  the  more  remote 
the  period  the  more  difficult  is  an  adequate  description 
of  its  practice.  Scarcity  of  concrete  illustrative  materials 
of  no  more  remote  a  time  than  the  ante-bellum  period 
makes  a  description  of  actual  educational  practice  of  the 
system  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter  more  of  a 
task  than  would  at  first  appear.  The  poor  system  of 
bookkeeping  of  the  time,  for  example,  renders  an  intel- 
ligible treatment  of  the  fiscal  features  of  the  school  sys- 
tem no  easy  matter.  Moreover,  officials,  either  igno- 
rantly  or  through  negligence,  often  failed  to  record  in 
permanent  form  minor  but  historically  important  de- 
tails of  the  operation  of  the  system.  However,  by  a 
study  of  the  few  illustrative  materials  accessible,  a 
fairly  adequate  conception  may  be  formed  of  educa- 
tional practice  in  North  Carolina  before  the  war.  In 
the  practical  operation  of  the  school  system  at  that  time, 
the  curriculum,  schoolbooks,  material  equipment,  and 
methods  of  teaching  are  among  the  more  interesting 
features.  The  principle  of  school  support,  by  local  taxa- 
tion and  the  income  from  the  literary  fund,  has  already 
been  pointed  out. 

The  curriculum  of  the  ante-bellum  system  was  very 
narrow,  generally  including  little  more  than  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  spelling,  with  now  and  then  a 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE        193 

little  geography,  grammar,  and  history.  The  subjects 
on  which  teachers  were  usually  examined  were  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  spelling.  Wiley  urged  that  the 
female  teachers  be  examined  on  these  and  that  the  male 
teachers  be  required  in  addition  to  show  ability  to  teach 
the  subjects  of  grammar  and  geography.  But  this  re- 
quirement was  not  generally  made,  though  these  "ad- 
vanced" subjects  were  sometimes  taught  in  some  of  the 
schools,  as  was  also  the  subject  of  history.  Texts  in 
this  subject  served  rather  as  reading-books,  however, 
than  as  guides  for  historical  study. 

Uniformity  of  textbooks  during  the  ante-bellum  period 
was  unknown  in  North  Carolina.  One  of  the  evils  of 
the  system  was  the  "multiplicity  and  frequent  change 
of  textbooks,  by  which  expenses  were  accumulated  on 
parents  and  guardians,  the  progress  of  the  school  re- 
tarded, and  teachers  greatly  embarrassed  by  having 
large  schools  with  nearly  every  child  in  a  class  by  itself." 
Wiley  urged  improvement  of  this  condition  and  worked 
to  drive  out  poor  books,  to  prevent  frequent  and  unwise 
changes,  and  to  secure  the  use  of  a  uniform  series.  Uni- 
formity, the  superintendent  believed,  would  decrease 
expense  and  enable  a  form  of  student  classification 
which  would  not  otherwise  be  possible,  especially  when 
a  great  variety  of  books  were  in  use.  To  secure  this  im- 
provement he  early  recommended  uniform  books.  He 
was  unable  to  secure  the  adoption  of  uniform  books, 
however,  and  a  great  variety  of  texts  in  the  subjects 
taught  continued  to  be  used  throughout  the  period. 
This  great  variety  of  texts  and  of  authors  reflects  some- 
thing of  the  actual  educational  conditions  of  the  time. 

Wiley  urged  uniformity  of  books  as  a  means  of  improv- 
ing school  conditions  in  the  State,  and  recommended 


194    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

those  which  in  his  opinion  were  suited  to  the  schools.  The 
list  consisted  of:  Webster's  Speller;  Wiley's  North  Caro- 
lina Reader;  Parker's  First  and  Second  Readers;  Davies's 
Arithmetics;  Emerson's  Arithmetic;  Mitchell's  Inter- 
mediate Geography  (North  Carolina  Edition);  Bullion's 
Grammar;  Worcester's  Comprehensive  Dictionary;  and 
Wiley's  Common  School  Catechism.1  In  spite  of  their 
official  recommendation  these  books  were  by  no  means 
all  of  those  actually  used  in  the  public  schools  of  the 
State  before  the  war.  In  addition  to  Webster's  famous 
book,  which  occupied  first  place  in  North  Carolina  as 
in  other  States,  the  following  were  among  other  spell- 
ers extensively  used  in  the  State  during  the  period: 
—  Barry's  Speller,  Burton's  Speller,  Cobb's  Speller, 
Comly's  Speller,  Dilworth's  Speller,  Emerson's  Speller, 
The  Eclectic  Speller,  Ely's  Speller,  Fenning's  Speller, 
Hazen's  Speller  and  Definer,  Kirby's  Speller,  Marshall's 
Speller,  Mayo's  Speller,  Murray's  Speller,  The  National 
Spelling  Book,  The  United  States  Speller,  The  Universal 
Speller,  The  Union  Spelling  Book,  Town's  Spelling  Book, 
The  Western  Speller,  and  Wood's  Speller. 

Spelling-books  during  the  ante-bellum  period  were  not 
intended  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  spelling, 
but  served  the  threefold  purpose  of  spellers,  readers,  and 
moral  instructors.  The  most  famous  of  all  the  texts  on 
the  subject  was  Webster's,  popularly  known  as  the  "Old 
Blue  Back,"  which  was  universally  used  in  the  schools 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  same  year  that  Wiley  recom- 
mended these  books  for  use  in  North  Carolina  (1853),  the  following 
books  were  recommended,  by  a  convention  of  school  officials  and 
teachers  in  Augusta  County,  Virginia,  for  use  in  the  schools  of  that 
State:  Webster's  Speller;  McGuffy's  or  Mandeville's  Readers;  Brown's 
or  Bailey's  English  Grammar;  Mitchell's  or  Smith's  Geography;  Col- 
burn's  or  Davies's  Arithmetics.  . 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE        195 

of  this  country  until  comparatively  recent  years.  Even 
young  people  of  to-day  are  familiar  with  or  have  heard 
of  this  celebrated  book.  It  had  a  wide  circulation  from 
the  first,  and  at  the  time  of  Webster's  death  in  1842 
a  million  copies  were  being  distributed  annually.  The 
f  influence  of  the  book  can  hardly  be  estimated.  Spelling 
became  a  fad  almost  simultaneously  with  its  appearance 
in  1783,  and  "spelling-bees"  soon  came  to  be  a  popular 
school  exercise.  In  North  Carolina,  as  in  other  sections 
of  the  South  where  schoolbooks  were  scarce,  it  was  often 
one  of  the  first  books  put  into  the  hands  of  the  child 
when  he  entered  school,  and  served  as  a  good  com- 
bination of  primer,  speller,  reader,  and  moral  guide. 

Among  the  primers  in  use  in  the  State  during  the 
ante-bellum  period  were  The  American  Primer,  The 
Baltimore  Primer,  Cobb's  Primer,  Hanson's  Symbolical 
Primer,  The  Juvenile  Primer,  The  New  York  Primer,  The 
New  England  Primer,  The  Philadelphia  Primer,  The 
Union  Primer,  The  United  States  Primer,  The  Washing- 
ton Primer,  Webster's  Primer,  and  Worcester's  Primer. 
Of  these  The  New  England  Primer  was  for  a  long  time 
one  of  the  most  popular  and  was  in  use  in  North  Caro- 
lina and  other  Southern  States  for  a  long  time  after  it 
had  fallen  into  neglect  in  other  sections.  Scarcity  of 
textbooks  here  probably  helped  to  maintain  a  place  for 
it.  The  book  was  "almost  entirely  a  religious  and  moral 
miscellany  of  verse  and  prose  gathered  from  all  sorts 
of  sources.  Prominent  in  the  miscellany  is  a  picture 
alphabet  —  a  series  of  twenty -four  tiny  pictures,  each 
accompanied  by  a  two  or  three  line  jingle,"  which  was 
a  very  old  method  of  teaching  the  alphabet.  The  jingles 
were  doubtless  thought  to  lend  themselves  to  teaching 
certain  religious  beliefs. 


196    THE   PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  list  of  reading-books  was  even  larger  than  the 
number  of  primers  in  use  in  North  Carolina  before  the 
war.  Reading,  together  with  ciphering  and  writing, 
occupied  the  major  portion  of  the  curriculum,  and  dur- 
ing the  ante-bellum  period  almost  any  printed  matter 
which  could  be  furnished  the  children  served  as  a  text- 
book in  the  subject.  The  following  are  some  of  the  ma- 
terial reported  as  "readers":  Bingham's  American  Pre- 
ceptor, Blair's  Reading  Exercises,  Baxter's  Call,  Bible 
and  Sabbath  School  Books,  Class  Readers,  Child's  Library, 
Child's  Booh,  Cobb's  Reading  Books,  Columbian  Orator, 
Come  and  Welcome  to  Christ,  Eclectic  Reader,  Emerson's 
Readers,  Evening  Entertainment,  Fascinating  Companion, 
Family  Story  Book,  Hall's  Western  Reader,  Hervey's 
Meditations,  Juvenile  Readers,  Kay's  Reader,  Murray's 
Introduction,  Reader  and  Sequel,  Moral  Instructor,  Na- 
tional Reader,  New  England  Reader,  The  New  York  Read- 
ers, Nos.  1,2,  and  3,  New  York  Expositor,  New  Testament, 
Orator's  Assistant,  Panorama  of  Arts,  Panorama  of  Trades, 
Parley's  Tales,  Parley's  Reader,  Popular  Lessons,  Pleas- 
ing Companion,  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Scott's  Lessons, 
Southern  Reader,  The  'Spectator,  Town's  Little  Thinker, 
United  States  Readers,  United  States  Constitution,  The 
Virginian  Orator,  Miss  Edgeworth's  Early  Lessons, 
Mother  at  Home,  Child  at  Home,  Parents'  Cabinet,  Cabinet 
Library,  Robinson  Crusoe,  and  others.  Of  these  Murray's 
Reader,  published  in  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in 
1825,  and  The  New  York  Reader,  No.  3,  published  in 
New  York  in  1828,  were  the  most  extensively  used. 
All  readers  of  the  period  were  intended  to  assist  young 
people  to  read  "with  propriety  and  effect,  to  improve 
their  language  and  sentiments,  and  to  inculcate  some  of 
the  most  important  principles  of  piety  and  virtue." 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE       197 

Because  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  mathematics  was 
held  as  a  practical  science,  arithmetic  held  perhaps  the 
most  important  place  in  the  curriculum,  and,  as  in  other 
subjects,  a  great  variety  of  texts  were  in  use.  Among 
those  most  frequently  reported  in  use,  texts  by  the  fol- 
lowing authors  may  be  mentioned :  Adams,  Beattie,  Col- 
burn,  Daboll,  Dilworth,  Emerson,  Fenn,  Fenning, 
Fisher,  Fowler,  Gough,  Jess,  Jones,  Niles,  Park,  Pike, 
Ray,  Root,  Slocomb,  Smiley,  Smith,  Stockton,  Walking- 
ham,  Walsh,  Webster,  Willard.  Of  these  Colburn's  First 
Lessons  in  Intellectual  Arithmetic,  which  appeared  in 
1821,  Thomas  Dilworth's  The  School-Master's  Assistant, 
which  appeared  earlier,  and  the  works  of  Jess  and  of 
Pike,  earlier  still,  were  among  those  most  extensively 
used  in  North  Carolina  during  the  ante-bellum  regime. 

On  account  of  the  monopoly  of  the  curriculum  by  the 
minimum  essentials  of  an  English  education  —  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic  —  geography  found  rather 
tardily  the  position  which  it  now  occupies  in  the  curricu- 
lum of  the  elementary  school.  Even  the  higher  schools 
neglected  it  as  a  separate  study  until  far  into  the  nine- 
teenth century.  When  it  first  appeared  in  the  lower 
schools  it  was  not  treated  as  a  subject  distinct  in  itself; 
neither  was  it  intended,  as  it  is  to-day,  to  impart  a 
knowledge  of  world  movements,  of  current  events,  or  of 
the  economic  and  commercial  relations  of  man.  Like 
the  earlier  histories,  books  on  geography  served  as  read- 
ers rather  than  as  texts  on  the  subject  of  the  earth  as  the 
home  of  man.  Frequently,  however,  geographies  must 
have  been  used  in  the  capacities  of  readers  and  histories 
also.  Not  a  few  of  the  texts  in  use  in  the  early  nineteenth 
century  could  have  served  one  purpose  quite  as  well  as 
another. 


198    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

In  these  capacities,  as  readers  and  as  histories,  a  great 
variety  of  texts  were  in  use.  Among  them  books  by  the 
following  authors  seem  to  have  been  most  widely  known 
and  used:  Adams,  Carey,  Cummings,  Frazer,  Guthrie, 
Huntingdon,  Moss,  Morse,  Olney,  "Peter  Parley," 
Smiley,  Willett,  Willard,  and  Woodbridge.  Of  these  the 
work  of  Morse,  the  pioneer  American  geographer,  and 
the  work  of  Olney  were  apparently  the  most  popular. 
Morse's  book,  The  American  Universal  Geography,  was 
a  sketchy,  fragmentary  combination  history-geography 
of  the  whole  world,  treated  historically,  geographically, 
economically,  educationally,  religiously,  politically, 
morally,  and  socially.  Olney's  Geography  and  Atlas  was 
accepted  as  a  standard  text  on  the  subject  immediately 
after  its  appearance  in  1828,  and  for  forty  years  or  longer 
it  found  a  place  in  North  Carolina.  Moreover,  the  book 
almost  immediately  had  the  effect  of  changing  the  cur- 
rent method  of  teaching  the  subject.  Olney,  who  was 
a  practical  teacher,  emphasized  the  tendency  toward 
"home  geography."  4% 

Textbooks  on  grammar  did  not,  as  geographies  and 
histories,  serve  well  as  readers,  and  that  subject,  as  we 
know  it  to-day,  also  came  slowly  into  the  schools.  The 
early  texts  were  unduly  intricate  and  difficult  to  explain 
or  to  understand,  and  the  subject  was  regarded  as  more 
or  less  meaningless  as  well  as  dreary.  Children  were 
therefore  little  interested  in  it.  The  prefaces  of  many  of 
the  earlier  works  were  often  apologetic,  deploring  the 
lack  of  interest  in  such  an  important  subject.  The  pri- 
mary purpose  of  grammar  was  to  teach  the  correct  use 
of  spoken  and  written  language,  but,  like  geography,  it 
was  also  meant  to  serve  a  moral  and  religious  purpose. 
Grammar  was  not  a  required  subject  in  the   public 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE       199 

schools  in  North  Carolina  during  the  ante-bellum  period, 
teachers  were  not  examined  on  it,  and  the  subject  was 
therefore  not  widely  taught.  Occasionally,  however, 
county  officials  reported  a  few  "grammar  and  geogra- 
phy" pupils.1  in  some  of  their  schools.  With  the  few 
who  were  studying  the  subject  a  great  variety  of  texts 
were  used.  Among  them  the  following  authors  may  be 
mentioned:  Ash,  Bingham,  Boardman,  Brown,  Bullion, 
Comly,  Greenleaf,  Harrison,  Ingersol,  Jandon,  Johnston, 
Kirkman,  Lowth,  Murray,  Merton,  Olney,  Sanford, 
Scott,  Smith,  and  Webster.  The  work  of  Murray  and 
that  of  Kirkman  were  the  most  generally  used. 

History  likewise  found  a  place  tardily  in  the  curricu- 
lum of  the  public  schools  of  the  State,  and  when  it  first 
appeared  as  a  school  subject  it  was  largely  used  as  ma- 
terial for  teaching  reading.  The  value  of  the  subject  as 
a  means  of  furnishing  a  broad  interpretation  of  the 
world  was  not  recognized,  neither  was  it  believed  that 
the  subject  was  capable  of  making  direct  appeals  to 
human  interests,  to  curiosity,  to  the  imagination,  or  of 
developing  enlightened  patriotism  or  strengthening  in- 
tellectual habits.  Many  of  the  early  texts  contained 
neither  maps  nor  illustrations.  The  function  of  early 
history  teaching  was  often  believed  to  be  ethical  and 
religious,  though  the  methods  used  were  often  unsafe 
even  for  these  purposes. 

Few  books  on  historical  subjects  appeared  in  the 
schools  of  North  Carolina  until  the  late  thirties,  and  then 
they  were  used  largely  as  readers.  Among  those  most 
generally  in  use  were  works  of  Adams,  Frost,  Goldsmith, 
Goodrich,  Grimshaw,  Hale,  Jesse,  Millot,  "Peter  Par- 
ley," Pitkin,  Pinnock,  Webster  and  Worcester.  Ancient, 
■  See  pp.  200-203. 


200    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

mediaeval,  European,  universal,  general,  and  ecclesias- 
tical, were  words  which  often  described  the  texts  in  use. 
Most  of  these  works  were  often  the  merest  outlines,  a 
characteristic  often  observable  in  histories  until  near  the 
close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Moreover,  teachers 
were  poorly  prepared  to  teach  history,  and  there  was  but 
little  to  recommend  a  place  for  the  subject  in  the  schools. 
Poor  books,  poorly  prepared  teachers,  and  classrooms  so 
inadequately  equipped  that  they  never  suggested  the 
subject,  were  not  conducive  to  lead  pupils  to  study 
history  or  to  acquire  the  wholesome  habit  of  reading 
historical  material. 

Of  the  material  equipment  of  the  schools,  qualifica- 
tions of  the  teachers,  and  interest  in  public  education  in 
the  State  before  the  war,  the  following  pages  contain 
fairly  representative  descriptions  which  are  taken  from 
the  reports  of  the  chairmen  of  the  school  officials  of 
Burke,  Alamance,  Union,  and  Wilkes  Counties  to  the 
state  superintendent  for  the  year  1857.  These  reports 
are  representative  of  educational  conditions  in  the 
State  during  the  closing  years  of  the  ante-bellum  period. 
The  last  selection  is  from  one  of  Wiley's  early  reports 
and  contains  his  own  criticism  of  schoolroom  practices 
of  the  time. 

(Burke  County,  1857) 

I  visited  the  following  schools,  and  have  the  honor  to  report 
as  follows,  to  wit: 

No.  1.  There  is  no  district  schoolhouse  in  this  district,  and 
no  school  going  on,  but  they  have  used  the  money  heretofore 
by  teaching  in  a  rented  house. 

No.  2.  Has  a  good  house,  rock  chimney  and  glass  windows. 

Taught  by  Mr.  ,  an  excellent  teacher  of  the  lower 

branches  of  English  education.  He  knows  nothing  of  grammar 
and  geography. 


ANTE-BELLUM.  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE       201 

No.  3.  An  excellent  house  with  rock  chimney  and  glass 
windows.  Taught  by  Miss ,  five  grammar  and  geog- 
raphy scholars.  She  governs  well,  because  she  governs  by 
affection. 

No.  4.    Has  a  neat  schoolhouse  (new).    Taught 'by  Miss 

;  governs  well;  a  good  rock  chimney,  and  well  lighted; 

all  right. 

No.  5.  Is  a  pretty  good  house,  wants  some  repairs.  Taught 
by  Mr.  ,  and  does  very  well. 

No.  6.  A  very  good  house,  rock  chimney;  six  grammar  and 

geography  scholars.   Mr. ,  a  pretty  good  teacher,  has 

the  school. 

No.  7.  Has  no  district  schoolhouse,  having  recently  lost  a 
very  good  house  by  fire,  accidentally.  A  school  has  been  lately 
taught  in  a  storehouse,  which  is  on  the  school  lot.  It  was  well 
taught.   Seven  grammar  and  geography  scholars. 

No.  8.  An  excellent  house,  with  two  rock  chimneys.    The 

school  is  well  taught  by  Miss ,  daughter  of  our  sheriff. 

Eight  grammar  and  geography  scholars. 

No.  9.  Taught  by  Mr.  ,  an  excellent  young  man. 

Good  house,  rock  chimney.  Has  six  grammar  and  geography 
scholars.   All  is  right  here,  and  school  well  governed. 

No.  10.  Is  a  pretty  good  house,  but  wants  some  repairs, 

taught  by  Mrs. .  This  lady  is  an  excellent  tutoress,  and 

lives  near  the  schoolhouse  —  devotes  great  attention  to  her 
school,  and  governs  well.  I  think  her  No.  1  as  a  teacher.  She 
has  eight  grammar  and  geography  scholars. 

No.  11.  Is  a  small  district,  without  a  teacher  or  house. 

No.  12.  Taught  by  Mr. ,  an  excellent  teacher;  good 

house,  with  rock  chimney  and  glass  windows.  Nine  grammar 
and  geography  scholars. 

No.  13.  A  good  house,  rock  chimney  and  glass  windows. 

School  to  commence  soon  under  the  tuition  of  Mr.  , 

who  is  now  teaching  in  No.  12. 

No.  14.  An  excellent  house,  rock  chimney,  well  lighted 

with  glass  windows,  taught  by  the  Rev.  Mr. ,  one  of 

our  best  teachers.  Thirty  grammar  and  geography  scholars. 

No.  15.  A  new,  good  schoolhouse.  An  excellent  teacher 
has  been  teaching;  not  now  teaching,  but  will  soon  re-com- 
mence his  school.  All  right  here. 


202    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

No.  16.  A  good  house;  teacher  absent  a  while;  rock  chimney, 
well  lighted.   No  difficulties  here. 

No.  17.  An  excellent  house,  good  rock  chimney  and  glass 
windows.  School  well  taught.  Ten  grammar  and  geography 
scholars. 

No.  18.  The  district  had  a  house  nine  years  after  the  school 
law  went  into  operation,  near  the  center.  It  was  conducted 
in  peace  and  harmony  until  the  house  was  burnt  down ;  since 
then  there  has  been  a  school  taught  in  a  house  given  for  the 
purpose.  Some  dissatisfaction  still  exists  about  the  location  of 
a  house  by  the  committee,  but  I  think  these  differences  can  be 
settled  and  the  school  will  go  on. 

No.  19.  A  good  teacher  and  good  house.   Things  all  right. 

No.  20.  Good  house,  an  excellent  rock  chimney,  well  lighted, 
good  teacher,  school  well  taught. 

No.  21.  Good  house  and  pretty  good  teacher.  All  right. 

No.  22.  Rich  Mountain  district.  Tolerable  good  house.  All 
right.  Teacher  has  been  teaching,  but  stopped  his  school  for  a 
while. 

No.  23.  Stacey  district  has  a  very  good  house,  with  rock 

chimney,  good  glass  windows,  and  taught  by  a  Mr. ; 

all  in  good  order. 

No.  24.  A  very  good  house  with  rock  chimney  and  glass 
windows,  taught  by  Mr. ,  a  good  teacher. 

No.  25.  Taught  by  Mr.  ;  a  neat  good  house,  with 

rock  chimney  and  glass  windows.  Six  grammar  and  geography 
scholars.   School  well  conducted. 

No.  26.  Mr. ,  teacher;  an  excellent  new  house  with 

rock  chimney  and  glass  windows;  school  well  conducted.  Four 
grammar  and  geography  scholars. 

No.  27.  An  excellent  house,  rock  chimney  and  windows  of 
glass.   Five  grammar  and  geography  scholars.   All  right. 

No.  28.  No  district  school  at  present,  but  expect  one  will 
be  erected  soon.   A  lot  of  land  is  given,  and  will  be  conveyed 

to  the  committee  soon.  Mr. is  now  teaching  in  a  house 

which  has  been  procured  for  the  purpose.  Five  grammar  and 
geography  scholars.   No  difficulties. 

No.  29.  Brindleton  is  an  excellent  house,  with  rock  chim- 
ney and  glass  windows.    Taught  by  Mr. ,  an  ordinary 

teacher. 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE       203 

No.  30.  Rain  Hill  is  an  excellent  house,  taught  by  Mr. , 

a  very  good  teacher,  and  all  right. 

No.  31.  Is  an  excellent  house,  well  lighted  and  school  now 
being  taught.   No  troubles  or  difficulties. 

No.  32.  Is  a  pretty  good  house,  school  being  now  taught  by 
an  excellent  teacher. 

No.  33.  School  taught  by  Mr. ,  an  able  man;  pretty 

well  taught.  An  excellent  house,  with  rock  chimney  and  good 
light.  All  right. 

No.  34.  In  this  district  they  have  had  a  school  every  year, 
except  the  present  year,  in  a  house  procured  for  the  purpose, 
but  not  a  good  one.  The  committee  will  probably  cause  a  good 
house  to  be  built  pretty  soon. 

No.  35.  This  is  a  very  good  house,  and  has  a  school  now 
taught  by  Mr. .  Nothing  wrong  in  this  district. 

No.  36.  School  taught  by  Mrs.  ,  a  most  excellent 

tutoress.  A  very  good  house,  everything  neat  about  it;  rock 
chimney,  etc.  Nine  grammar  and  geography  scholars. 

No.  37.  School  taught  by  a  young  man,   Mr. .    An 

excellent  house,  new,  and  good  rock  chimney  and  glass  win- 
dows.   Seven  grammar  and  geography  scholars. 

No.  38.  This  is  the  district  in  which  the  difficulty  arose 
and  in  which  I  recommend  a  division,  as  stated  in  No.  22.  A 
school  has  been  taught  by  Mr. . 

No.  39.  School  taught  by  Mr. ;  a  very  good  teacher; 

a  good  house.   All  right. 

In  submitting  this  report  to  the  board  of  superintendents 
and  to  the  state  superintendent,  it  gives  me  great  pleasure  to 
state  that  I  found  the  houses  much  better  than  I  expected, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  schools  are  conducted  far  better 
than  I  ever  expected  to  find  them  in  my  lifetime.  There  ap- 
peared everywhere  throughout  the  county  a  good  spirit  among 
all  classes.  Every  assistance  was  rendered  to  get  me  on  from 
one  district  to  another,  and  not  one  dime  was  charged  by  any 
person  for  expenses,  and  every  necessary  comfort  rendered  me; 
which  was  extremely  grateful  to  the  feelings  of  an  aged  man. 

In  conclusion,  I  will  respectfully  remark  that  I  had  but  one 
thing  to  regret  in  this  visit,  to  wit:  that  so  few  of  the  districts 
taught  a  silent  school.  I  told  the  teachers  that  I  had  no  power 
to  reform;  this  belonged  to  the  district  committees.  But  I  used 


204    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

every  effort  which  reason  and  fair  argument  suggested,  to  re- 
move the  prejudice  which  exists  on  that  subject.  Some  two 
thirds  of  the  districts  teach  a  noisy  school. 


(Alamance  County,  1857) 

I  came  home  last  night  from  a  tour  visiting  our  school  dis- 
tricts and  houses,  and  am  glad  to  find  your  favor  of  the  24th 
inst.  at  the  post-office.  We  had  a  very  cold,  windy  day  yester- 
day, and  this  morning  is  quite  cold,  the  thermometer  standing 
at  20  degrees,  and  so  I  concluded  I  would  give  you  some  ac- 
count of  my  progress  in  visiting,  and  ask  your  counsel  on  sev- 
eral matters  relative  thereto.  I  have  visited  about  one  half 
the  schoolhouses,  and  find  them  in  better  condition  than  I  ex- 
pected, and  have  been  treated  with  courteous  attention  by  all. 
I  purchased  a  set  of  the  schoolbooks  and  paid  for  them,  one  set 
for  each  district,  and  left  them  with  each  committee,  with  a 
catalogue,  in  order  that  the  parents  of  the  children  might  know 
the  prices,  and  where  they  might  be  had. 

I  have  taken  much  care  to  select  one  of  the  most  public- 
spirited  of  each  committee  to  act  as  foreman;  those  having  the 
largest  family  of  children  to  attend  the  schools,  and  enjoin  it 
on  them  each  to  see  that  the  schoolhouses  are  kept  in  good 
comfortable  repair,  and  also  to  keep  the  sample  books  and 
catalogues.  I  have  found,  where  all  three  of  the  committee 
have  to  attend  to  the  requirements,  they  will  all  neglect  to 
do  their  duty;  and  hence  the  necessity  of  giving  it  to  one,  under 
the  instruction  of  the  joint  committee.  They  all  appear  to  be 
well  pleased  with  the  plan  of  procuring  books  and  the  mode 
proposed  to  procure  them. 

I  have  measured  the  dimensions  of  the  houses  and  the  land 
attached  and  taken  deeds,  and  classed  the  houses  in  five  grades, 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5;  as  yet  I  have  had  but  one  of  No.  1,  worth 
$175;  No.  2,  from  $100  to  $140;  No.  3,  from  $75  to  $100; 
No.  4,  from  $50  to  $75;  and  one  No.  5,  worth  only  $25.  So  far 
the  school  houses  and  land  average  about  $100  each;  the  num- 
ber in  the  county  48.  The  houses  are  generally  sufficiently  large 
in  extent  or  size.  I  have  a  small  book  in  which  I  record  the 
quality  of  each,  with  a  view  to  bring  about  some  district 
pride. 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE       205 

I  am  requiring  of  the  teachers  to  furnish,  in  addition  to  the 
printed  forms,  the  number  and  names  of  the  scholars  taught 
and  the  length  of  time  each  was  taught,  and  to  designate  the 
five  most  attentive  and  obedient  and  apt  to  learn,  by  attaching 
Nos.  1,  2,  and  so  on  to  their  respective  names. 

I  have  been  trying  to  take  the  number  of  black  and  white 
polls,  and  the  quantity  of  land  in  acres  embraced  in  each  dis- 
trict, and  also  the  value  of  it,  so  as  to  ascertain  the  amount 
of  tax  collected  from  each  for  school  purposes. 


(Union  County,  1857) 

Your  circular  for  the  present  year  came  to  hand  a  few  days 
ago.  With  its  contents  I  am  much  pleased,  and  hasten  to 
comply  with  your  request;  and  I  herewith  send  you  a  rough  and 
hastily  made  map  of  our  County  of  Union,  and  its  common- 
school  districts.  I  do  not  wish  to  consume  time  making  apolo- 
gies because  my  map  is  such  a  commonplace  excuse,  but  I  must 
make  some  explanation. 

Our  county  was  formed  in  1842,  but  continued  with  the 
counties  of  Anson  and  Mecklenburg  as  to  common-school 
matters  until  1850;  we  then  set  up  for  ourselves.  In  1851  we 
laid  off  the  county  into  school  districts,  four  miles  by  four  miles 
square  (by  survey) ;  your  humble  servant  was  made  chairman, 
and  has  so  continued.  We  now  consider  our  school  districts 
as  being  too  large  and  inconvenient  as  well  as  too  popu- 
lous (many  of  the  districts  numbering  from  100  to  140  chil- 
dren) ;  and  we  have  it  in  contemplation  to  re-district  our  county 
in  the  course  of  this  summer  and  fall,  and  we  are  intending  to 
bring  the  matter  to  the  notice  of  our  county  court  for  their 
approval  —  not  that  we,  the  county  superintendents,  doubt 
of  having  a  right  to  do  so,  but  for  courtesy  only.  For  when 
the  county  was  first  districted  the  court  generously  made  an 
order  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  laying  off,  amounting  to  some- 
thing over  $200;  and  at  that  time  there  was  no  school  tax  laid 
in  this  county,  but  as  there  is  now,  we  do  not  expect  the  county 
to  pay,  and  shall  take  the  expenses  from  the  school  funds 
raised  in  the  county.  (Will  this  be  right?)  As  to  the  form  and 
size  of  the  districts  —  on  this  subject  I  would  be  very  glad  of 
the  opportunity  to  consult  with  you ;  but  I  will  try  to  give  you 


206    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

my  views  and  plan  as  well  as  I  can,  which  are  to  lay  off  the  dis- 
tricts in  regular  hexagon  form,  or  six  equal  angles  containing 
twelve  square  miles,  so  that  the  center  of  each  district  will  only 
be  two  miles  from  each  corner.  Our  present  number  of  dis- 
tricts is  forty-one;  by  this  plan,  it  would  be  fifty-six.  Our 
county  contains  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven  square  miles,  and 
has  within  its  limits  a  number  of  large  creeks,  which  will  neces- 
sarily cause  derangement  of  the  regular  plan,  and  also  add  to 
the  number  of  districts.  This,  sir,  is  the  outline  of  the  plan  I 
had  expected  to  district  by;  and  if  you  can  help  me  to  an  idea, 
I  will  be  thankful  to  you  for  it. 

You  make  some  allusion  to  chairmen  visiting  schools,  etc. 
I  will  take  the  liberty  here  to  give  you  some  account  of  the 
way  and  manner  that  I  have  proceeded.  In  the  fall  of  1854  I 
visited  seventeen  of  the  districts,  when  the  schools  were  going 
on,  gave  such  advice  as  I  thought  necessary,  and  settled  a 
number  of  difficulties  that  had  arisen  in  the  schools;  took  ac- 
count of  the  number  of  children  in  attendance,  scolded  about 
the  bad  seats,  open  houses,  smoky  chimneys,  etc.,  called  on 
committeemen  and  extorted  promises  to  have  repairs  attended 
to,  most  of  which  I  believe  was  done.  The  summer  and  fall  of 
1855,  from  family  affliction,  I  attended  only  two  or  three  — 
nothing  worth  naming;  in  1856  I  visited  twenty-two  schools, 
and  1  should  have  been  glad,  had  it  been  called  for,  to  have 
made  a  report  to  you  of  the  improvement  which  appears  to  be 
going  forward  in  our  schools.  When  you  make  the  allowance 
that  our  county  is  a  good  way  behind  in  education  it  is  grati- 
fying to  know  that  in  every  district  I  was  at,  where  the  teacher 
was  competent  to  teach  grammar  and  geography,  there  were 
students  pursuing  them,  and  I  do  not  now  recollect  that  a 
solitary  complaint  was  made  in  the  county  the  past  year.  I 
know  I  have  run  on  with  a  great  deal  of  egotism,  but  I  am  writ- 
ing for  the  eye  of  none  but  my  much  respected  superintend- 
ent, and  that  is  my  apology.  One  who  I  know  takes  so  deep 
an  interest  in  education  generally  is  entitled  to  the  highest 
commendation. 

Should  we  succeed  and  our  county  be  re-districted  by  a 
competent  surveyor  (my  age  forbids  me),  I  will  endeavor,  as 
soon  as  possible,  to  comply  with  your  request  more  fully. 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE       207 

(Wilkes  County,  1857) 

Your  esteemed  favor  of  the was  duly  received,  and, 

according  to  your  request,  I  should  have  written  you  long  be- 
fore this;  but  my  professional  engagements  have  been  so 
pressing  that  I  have  found  it  impossible  to  write  sooner,  and 
now  write  away  from  my  office  .  .  .  while  waiting  upon  the 
sick. 

According  to  appointment,  our  "Educational  Meeting" 
came  off  and,  as  the  first  effort  of  the  kind  in  this  county, 
may  well  be  called  a  great  "success."  I  had  visited  as  many 
as  ten  of  our  voting  precincts,  involving  a  ride  of  over  two 
hundred  miles  —  had  extended  a  very  earnest  and  special 
invitation  to  our  magistrates,  ministers  of  the  gospel,  school 
teachers,  committeemen,  and  all  friends  of  education  in  our 
county,  to  come  out  and  let  us  form  a  society  of  such  numerical 
strength,  character,  and  influence,  as  would  at  the  very  out- 
set place  us  on  a  firm  and  successful  career.  I  am  proud  to 
say  that  I  realized  a  more  hearty  response  than  I  at  first  an- 
ticipated —  a  large  and  imposing  delegation  of  the  magistracy 
of  our  county,  and  a  representative  from  almost  every  dis- 
trict either  of  the  committeemen  or  some  friend  of  common- 
schools  being  present. 

Although  it  was  court  day,  and  there  was  political  speak- 
ing, yet  we  so  arranged  it  that  our  meeting  was  organized 
immediately  at  the  close  of  the  discussion.  I  had  made  an 
effort  to  have  a  speaker  provided,  but  did  not  succeed  —  had 
therefore  to  officiate  myself;  and  after  calling  a  temporary 
president,  I  proceeded  to  explain  more  fully  the  object  of  our 
meeting,  to  point  out  some  of  the  advantages  likely  to  result 
from  this  movement,  and  then  I  read  your  letter,  as  you  re- 
quested. I  then  called  over  the  names  of  all  our  committeemen, 
invited  the  ministers  of  the  Gospel  and  the  teachers  and  mag- 
istrates to  come  forward  and  take  seats  (as  by  an  article  of 
our  constitution  they  were  already  members  by  virtue  of 
their  office). 

After  consulting  with  some  of  the  friends  of  our  cause,  we 
concluded  to  draw  up  and  adopt  a  constitution  for  the  present, 
according  to  my  promise,  and  hereafter  alter  or  substitute,  as 
occasion  may  require.  I  accordingly  drew  up  the  accompany- 


208    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

ing  preamble  and  constitution,  copying  the  state  form  as  far  as 
I  could.  This  I  submitted,  article  after  article,  accompanied 
with  suitable  explanations,  and  it  was  adopted.  I  then  pro- 
ceeded to  nominate  and  elect  individually  our  board  of  officers. 

After  the  president  took  the  chair,  and  our  association  was 
fully  organized,  I  submitted  a  few  suggestions  concerning  the 
introduction  of  the  Bible  in  our  schools  —  having  ascertained 
that  this  matter  had  been  so  neglected  that  it  amounted  al- 
most to  a  prohibition  —  premising  that  I  had  obtained,  partly 
by  donation  and  partly  by  purchase,  a  sufficiency  of  books  to 
give  one  copy  of  the  Bible  and  ten  copies  of  the  Testament  to 
every  school  district  in  the  county.  I  urged  with  earnestness  and 
zeal  the  great  importance  of  this  movement  —  enjoined  it 
upon  the  teachers  to  attend  to  this  matter  —  and  called  upon 
the  committees  to  help  us  carry  forward  the  plan.  My  remarks 
were  listened  to  with  profound  attention  on  this  point;  and 
I  have  reason  to  believe  will  not  only  command  the  appro- 
bation of  our  school  officers,  but  will  contribute  something 
toward  the  accomplishment  of  this  much  needed  measure. 

I  then  detailed  a  plan  we  were  trying  to  introduce  to  pre- 
pare and  encourage  our  teachers,  i.e.,  of  raising  a  "Public 
Circulating  Library,"  a  scheme  the  teachers  were  gladly  avail- 
ing themselves  of,  but  which  was  much  desired  and  much 
needed  by  many  others  —  as  placing  the  means  of  information 
and  preparation  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers,  introducing 
standard  books,  etc.,  into  our  community.  I  was  anxious  to 
obtain  subscribers,  as  many  as  possible,  outside  the  corps  of 
teachers.  As  this  was  the  last  business  we  did,  and  as  the 
county  candidates  were  urging  us  through,  I  did  not  get  as 
many  subscribers  as  I  think,  under  other  circumstances,  might 
have  been  obtained.  I  have,  however,  from  all  sources,  about 
$70  subscribed.  I  hope  to  be  able  to  raise  $100  —  if  so,  it  is 
the  intention  of  the  board  to  subscribe  another  $100  —  this 
will  give  us  a  pretty  fair  start.  If  I  succeed  in  this  matter,  I 
will  trouble  you  again  in  making  out  a  catalogue  of  books,  etc. 

Previous  to  adjournment  it  was  agreed  to  set  apart  the 
4th  of  July  in  every  year  to  hold  our  annual  meetings,  and  that 
called  meetings  will  be  held  as  often  as  required  by  the  presi- 
dent. This,  with  a  few  other  desultory  proceedings,  closed  our 
meeting. 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE      209 

I  have  thus,  my  dear  sir,  in  my  intervals  while  in  attendance 
upon  the  sick,  endeavored  to  give  you  a  sketch  of  our  "First 
Educational  Meeting"  in  Wilkes  County  —  a  sketch  imperfect 
in  all  its  details,  and  in  which  I  regret  that  my  own  name  and 
efforts  should  occupy  so  conspicuous  a  place;  but  am  assured 
that  you  will  not  refer  it  to  any  egotism  on  my  part,  but  to  the 
deep  and  abiding  interest  that  I  hope  I,  in  common  with  your- 
self, feel  in  this  matter. 

I  think  I  may  safely  assert  that  our  corps  of  teachers,  though 
not  prepared  as  well  as  even  the  law  requires,  and  not  making 
the  advancement  it  is  desirable  they  should  do,  go  out  to  their 
fields  of  labor  impressed  more  deeply  and  thoroughly  than 
perhaps  ever  heretofore,  with  the  importance  and  immense 
responsibility  of  their  calling. 

The  imperfect  manner  in  which  our  school  districts  were 
originally  run  off,  their  irregularity  both  in  numbering  and 
size,  renders  it  necessary  to  re-arrange  and  re-district  our 
county;  and  we  expect  to  have  this  done  the  present  fall  — 
having  the  districts  made  uniform  in  size,  the  number  in  regu- 
lar order,  and  the  lines  and  corners  marked.  When  this  work 
is  done,  I  shall  be  glad  to  supply  you  with  a  map  of  our  county, 
and  I  have  no  doubt  but  what  it  will  greatly  facilitate  our 
school  operations. 

The  following,  taken  from  one  of  Wiley's  earlier  re- 
ports, will  throw  a  little  light  on  his  own  idea  of  defects 
in  the  schoolroom :  — 

I  have  met  with  persons  who  thought  my  course  of  instruc- 
tion —  that  is,  the  series  of  books  recommended  —  too  simple; 
and  I  found  that  these  persons  could  not  answer  one  fourth  of 
the  important  questions  which  could  be  asked  and  answered 
out  of  Webster's  Spelling  Book.  All  pupils,  when  reading, 
ought  to  have  by  them,  for  constant  reference,  a  dictionary; 
and  when  teachers  exercise  the  students  in  spelling,  from  mem- 
ory (and  they  ought  to  do  it  often),  they  should  give  out  the 
words  from  a  work  of  this  sort,  and  give  also  the  definition. 
Arithmetical  recitations  on  the  slate  should  be  universally 
abolished;  and  there  is  no  one  thing  so  important  in  a  school- 
room, and  few  things  cheaper  than  a  blackboard.  In  the  hands 
of  a  good  teacher  it  is  absolutely  indispensable:  it  serves  for 


210    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

arithmetical  recitations,  for  practice  in  shaping  figures  and 
letters  to  those  beginning  to  write,  and  is  useful  in  lectures, 
as  affording  a  place  to  make  illustrations  in  the  view  of  the 
whole  school. 

Blackboards  were  doubtless  very  scarce  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  State  before  the  war  and  they  continued 
scarce  until  many  years  afterwards.  Throughout  the 
period  Wiley  urged  improvement  in  material  equipment 
and  in  methods  of  teaching,  and  in  these  things  he 
brought  about  considerable  progress.  In  the  late  fifties 
there  was  a  rapidly  growing  tendency  to  improve  school- 
houses,  and  throughout  the  period  there  was  a  notice- 
able improvement  in  the  teachers. 

REFERENCES 

Legislative  Documents  of  North  Carolina;  Legislative 
Documents  of  Virginia;  Annual  Reports  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  1853-66;  the  North  Carolina  Journal  of 
Education;  Johnston,  Old-Time  Schools  and  School-books; 
Coon,  North  Carolina  Schools  and  Academies,  1790-1840,  a 
Documentary  History;  numerous  old  textbooks.  Most  of  the 
books  referred  to  in  this  chapter  are  in  the  Library  of  Congress, 
and  many  of  them  have  been  examined  by  the  author. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  How  much  more  extensive  is  the  public  school  curriculum 
to-day  than  it  was  before  the  war?  How  has  it  expanded 
during  the  past  twenty  years?  How  have  school  books 
improved  during  that  time? 

2.  What  is  the  advantage  of  uniform  school  books?  Com- 
pare the  books  recommended  by  Wiley  in  1853  with  those 
in  use  in  the  public  schools  of  the  State  to-day. 

S.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  spelling-book? 
What  was  the  method  of  teaching  spelling  before  the 
war?  What  is  the  weakness  of  the  methods  in  use  to-day? 
What  was  the  value  of  the  old-time  "spelling-bees"  or 
"  spelling-matches  "  ? 


ANTE-BELLUM  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE       211 

4.  Compare  the  early  readers  with  those  in  use  in  the  State 
to-day. 

5.  Why  did  arithmetic  occupy  such  an  important  place 
in  the  ante-bellum  curriculum?  What  was  the  purpose 
of  teaching  the  subject?  How  did  the  early  method  of 
teaching  the  subject  differ  from  the  present  method  or 
methods?  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  textbook 
on  arithmetic? 

6.  Why  did  geography  come  slowly  into  the  public  schools? 
How  did  the  purpose  and  use  of  early  geography  teach- 
ing differ  from  the  purpose  and  use  of  the  subject  to-day? 
How  has  the  method  of  teaching  geography  changed  in 
recent  years?  Account  for  this  change.  In  what  respect 
is  geography  a  "practical"  subject?  A  "moral"  subject? 
A  "cultural"  subject? 

7.  How  have  textbooks  on  grammar  changed  in  recent 
years?  How  have  the  methods  of  teaching  the  subject 
changed?  What  is  your  criticism  of  so-called  "formal 
grammar"? 

8.  Why  was  the  value  of  history  as  a  distinct  school  subject 
not  early  recognized?  WThat  was  the  purpose  of  the  sub- 
ject when  it  first  appeared?  What  is  the  purpose  of  the 
subject  to-day?  In  what  way  does  history  serve  as  a 
subject  for  moral  training?  What  are  the  characteristics 
of  a  good  textbook  on  history?  What  are  the  qualifica- 
tions of  a  good  teacher  of  the  subject? 

9.  Why  were  all  textbooks  of  the  early  period  arranged  so  as 
to  furnish  moral  and  religious  training? 

10.  How  has  the  material  equipment  of  the  schools  in  your 
county  increased  in  the  past  ten  years?  How  have  the 
qualifications  of  the  teachers  in  your  county  improved 
in  that  time? 

11.  What  agencies  are  at  work  to  improve  the  public  school- 
houses  and  grounds  of  your  county?  Why  should  local 
school-houses  be  built  in  accordance  with  plans  approved 
by  the  state  department  of  education? 

12.  How  has  county  supervision  improved  in  your  county 
during  the  past  ten  years? 

13.  How  does  local  educational  interest  express  itself  in  your 
county? 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION 

One  criticism  which  the  student  of  American  educa- 
tional history  is  forced  to  make  of  the  average  treat- 
ment of  the  origin  and  development  of  our  public-school 
system  is  in  the  great  variety  of  loose  and  inaccurate 
statements  concerning  ante-bellum  educational  effort 
in  the  Southern  States.  Another  is  in  the  more  or  less 
arbitrary  geographic  and  chronologic  divisions  made  in 
the  story  of  public  educational  development  in  the 
United  States  at  large.  There  may  be  a  certain  conven- 
ience in  such  divisions,  but  they  are  often  made  at  the 
expense  of  justice  and  fairness  to  the  principle  on  which 
educational  interest  expressed  itself  prior  to  1860.  For 
example,  Massachusetts  is  often  considered  the  proto- 
type of  scholastic  endeavor  in  all  New  England  in  colo- 
nial days  and  during  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  the  educational  customs  of  Virginia  are  fre- 
quently considered  representative  of  the  educational 
theory  and  practice  which  prevailed  in  the  entire  South- 
ern States  before  the  war;  schools  and  education  in 
Pennsylvania  are  usually  taken  as  a  type  for  the  middle 
eastern  section  of  the  country;  and  New  York  is  ordi- 
narily given  an  educational  classification  to  itself. 

In  such  historical  treatments,  which  are  more  or  less 
arbitrary  and  often  contrary  to  facts,  numerous  loose 
and  general  statements  concerning  education  in  the 
United  States  before  1860  have  appeared.  One  of  these 
statements  has  concerned  educational  sentiment  and 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       213 

educational  effort  and  practice  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  country  prior  to  the  Civil  War.  It  has  become  popu- 
lar to  assert  that  there  was  no  system  of  public  educa- 
tion in  these  States  prior  to  the  congressional  plan  of  Re- 
construction; that  little  effort  for  education  had  been 
made  in  the  South  before  that  time;  and  that  this  lack 
of  educational  tradition  for  all  the  people  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  war  and  its  deplorable  aftermath. 
Such  education  as  was  given  in  the  South  during  ante- 
bellum days  was  believed  by  some  to  have  been  based  on 
wrong  principles  which  finally  produced  the  secessionist 
and  rebellious  spirit.  It  was  also  believed  that  the  poor 
whites  of  the  South  were  in  dense  ignorance  and  that 
this  ignorance  had  been  exploited  by  unprincipled 
leaders  and  made  the  foundation  for  the  Confederacy. 
It  was  further  believed  in  some  quarters  that  the  white 
leaders  in  the  South  frequently  opposed  public  educa- 
tion for  the  masses  of  the  people,  and  that  all  classes 
opposed  the  education  of  the  negroes  after  their  emanci- 
pation.1 

The  evidence  on  this  matter  is  abundant.  The  war 
had  scarcely  closed  before  this  belief  was  finding  ex- 
pression throughout  the  country.  The  speeches  in  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  National  Teachers'  Association, 
which  was  held  in  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  August, 
1865,  were  burdened  with  the  idea  that  the  lately  closed 
rebellion  had  been  a  "war  of  education  and  patriotism 
against  ignorance  and  barbarism."  In  his  opening 
speech,  "The  Educational  Duties  of  the  Hour,"  the 
president  of  that  organization  said :  — 

All  through  the  loyal  States  our  principal  institutions  have 
prospered  to  a  most  wonderful  degree.   How  has  it  been  with 

1  Fleming,  Documentary  History  of  Reconstruction,  vol.  n,  chap.  ix. 


214    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  States  in  rebellion?  Scarcely  an  institution  of  learning 
survived.  ...  In  all  the  free  States  the  public-school  system 
prevailed,  and  in  most  was  administered  with  great  efficiency, 
giving  a  good  education  alike  to  the  poor  and  the  rich.  .  .  . 
How  was  it  in  the  States  where  the  institution  of  slavery  pre- 
vailed? There  was  no  common-school  system.  Exceptions 
there  were  in  some  of  the  cities  —  but  as  a  general  fact,  the 
statement  is  correct.  The  children  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
population  were,  by  law,  prohibited  the  advantages  of  an 
education,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  free  population  were  vir- 
tually shut  out  from  the  means  of  early  culture.  .  .  .  Thus 
has  our  land  been  deluged  in  blood.  Sagacious  politicians  of 
the  South  saw  the  tendencies,  and  attributed  the  evil  to  the 
quality  of  Northern  education.  Without  stopping  to  defend 
the  character  of  our  educational  processes  at  the  North,  let  it 
be  observed  that  the  root  of  the  difficulty  lay  not  in  this  direc- 
tion, but  in  the  fact  of  a  diffused  and  universal  education  at 
the  North  and  a  very  limited  education  at  the  South.  No  two 
sections  of  country,  though  under  the  same  government,  can 
dwell  together  in  peace  and  harmony,  where  the  advantages 
of  education  are  widely  dissimilar.  .  .  . 

There  is  but  one  alternative  —  education  must  be  diffused 
throughout  the  masses  of  the  South.  Black  and  white  —  "poor 
white"  and  rich  white  —  all  must  be  educated.  Not  to  edu- 
cate them  is  to  prepare  for  another  Civil  War.  .  .  . 

Before  the  war  no  Southern  teacher  dared  to  discuss  the 
whole  truth  at  the  South.  .  .  .  Can  we  not  as  educators  go 
boldly  into  the  Southern  States  and  teach  the  truth  and  the 
whole  truth?  If  not,  I  pray  God  that  martial  law  may  prevail 
in  every  Southern  State,  till  Northern  men,  or  any  other  men, 
may  discuss  educational,  social,  political,  and  moral  and  re- 
ligious topics  in  any  part  of  the  South  as  freely  as  in  Faneuil 
Hall.   This  right  we  must  have.  .  .  . 

The  result  of  the  war  was  also  regarded  by  many  as 
affording  rare  opportunities  for  extending  "universal 
education"  in  the  States  lately  in  rebellion.  The  entire 
South  was  now  viewed  as  a  vast  missionary  field,  and 
this  view  was  one  of  the  defenses  of  the  policy  adopted 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       215 

for  "reconstructing"  that  region.  In  spite  of  the  genu- 
ineness of  much  of  this  sentiment,  the  decade  following 
the  close  of  the  war  shows  much  misdirected  missionary 
zeal  and  visionary  effort.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Peabody  Board  Trustees,  whose  work  has  had  a  lasting 
beneficial  influence  on  education  in  the  South,  the  most 
of  these  missionary  activities  were  blindly  made  and 
with  little  or  no  understanding  of  local  conditions  and 
local  needs.  Enthusiasts  on  the  subject  failed  to  con- 
sider the  temper  of  the  popular  mind;  in  their  opinion  the 
chief  difference  between  the  white  man  and  the  negro 
was  the  enforced  ignorance  of  the  latter,  a  difference 
which  could  easily  be  removed.  Note  the  following, 
taken  from  a  pamphlet  issued  near  the  close  of  the  war, 
by  a  Massachusetts  minister:  — 

We  have  four  millions  of  liberated  slaves  who  should  be 
educated.  They  ask  it  at  our  hands,  and  the  world  expects 
us  to  do  it;  because  in  the  very  act  of  emancipation  there  is  the 
sacred  promise  to  educate.  Slavery  has  kept  the  word  educa- 
tion out  of  our  national  constitution.  Now  four  millions  of 
starved  minds  implore  its  introduction.  .  .  .  Their  former 
masters  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  educate  them,  and  would 
generally  refuse  to  pay  a  local  tax  for  the  purpose.  Since  the 
Christian  era  there  has  not  been  such  an  opportunity  for  such 
a  country  to  do  such  work;  the  noblest  work  man  can  do.  .  .  . 
The  old  slave  States  are  to  be  new  missionary  grounds  for  the 
national  schoolmaster.  .  .  . 

Others  believed  that 
when  the  combat  was  over  and  the  "Yankee"  schoolma'ams 
followed  in  the  train  of  Northern  armies,  the  business  of  edu- 
cating the  negroes  was  a  continuation  of  hostilities  against  the 
vanquished  South  and  so  regarded,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
on  both  sides.1 

1  Alice  M.  Bacon,  in  Occasional  Papers  of  the  Slater  Fund  Trustees, 
no.  7. 


216    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

From  such  an  early  beginning,  therefore,  it  is  not  as- 
tonishing that  inaccurate  notions  concerning  Southern 
educational  conditions  should  have  developed  and  per- 
sisted even  until  recent  years.  In  his  Autobiography, 
General  Oliver  O.  Howard,  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau, 
said  of  the  State  which  had  the  most  creditable  school 
system  to  be  found  in  the  entire  South  before  1860:  — 

It  is  a  wonderful  thing  to  recall  that  North  Carolina  had 
never  had  before  that  time  a  free-school  system  even  for  white 
pupils,  and  there  was  then  no  publication  in  the  State  devoted 
to  popular  education.  The  death  of  slavery  unfolded  the  wings 
of  knowledge  for  both  black  and  white  to  brighten  all  the  future 
of  the  "Old  North  State."  l 

The  inaccuracy  of  such  a  statement  is  obvious.  We 
have  already  traced  the  State's  educational  effort  be- 
fore the  war  and  noted  that  during  the  years  from  1852 
to  1861,  known  as  the  period  of  "reorganization,"  a 
journal  of  education  was  begun  and  maintained  and 
proved  a  valuable  auxiliary  agency  in  the  promotion  of 
popular  education.  Other  statements  equally  inaccurate 
have  also  been  developed  and  recorded  by  men  who 
should,  indeed,  know  better.  One  of  these  is  found  in 
The  Southern  South,  where  Professor  Hart  says  — 

...  as  for  free  public  schools,  not  a  single  Southern  State 
had  organized  and  set  in  operation  a  system  before  the  Civil 
War.2 

From  such  inaccurate  generalities  there  has  grown 
up  the  constantly  repeated  statement  that  the  schools 
which  did  exist  in  the  South  were  altogether  unlike 
those  found  elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  A  careful 
study  of  conditions  in  the  other  sections  of  the  country 
shows  a  striking  similarity  to  conditions  in  the  Southern 
1  Page  338.  *  Pages  289,  290. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       217 

States.  The  laws,  reports  of  the  administrative  officers, 
school  statistics,  complaints  against  the  inefficiency  of 
teachers  and  other  school  officials,  found  in  the  legisla- 
tive documents  and  the  messages  of  the  governors  of 
the  various  States,  all  bear  testimony  that  in  origin,  or- 
ganization, and  comparative  results,  there  was  a  striking 
likeness  between  educational  conditions  in  North  Caro- 
lina, Virginia,  or  Alabama,  and  those  of  the  more  ad- 
vanced States  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  or  Connecti- 
cut. Indeed,  one  does  not  have  to  search  far  for  evidence 
that  conditions  in  one  section  of  the  country  were  more 
or  less  similar  to  those  in  another  section,  and  that  the 
history  of  public  education  is  much  the  same  in  the 
United  States,  whether  it  be  the  history  of  one  part  of 
it  or  of  another.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
educational  conditions  in  any  two  sections,  or  in  any  two 
States  of  the  same  section,  are  at  any  one  time  the  same. 
Sentiment  in  favor  of  public  schools  for  all  the  people 
may  be  stronger  in  one  State  or  section  than  in  another; 
or  opposition  to  progressive  educational  policies  may 
weaken  or  grow  strong  as  the  economic,  political,  or 
social  conditions  vary. 

Most  of  the  state  school  systems  in  this  country  have 
passed  through  what  may  be  called  the  "storm  and  stress 
period"  in  their  development.  In  most  States  there 
have  been  great  educational  landmarks,  made,  perhaps, 
by  long  periods  of  educational  agitation  and  the  result- 
ing growth  of  unusual  sentiment  for  schools.  The  so- 
called  early  educational  revival  in  North  Carolina, 
from  the  establishment  of  the  literary  fund  in  1825  to 
the  passage  of  the  first  school  law  fourteen  years  later, 
is  practically  paralleled  by  the  educational  campaign  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  defense  of  whose  school  system  and 


218    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

school  law  Stevens  made  his  famous  speech  in  the  Legis- 
lature of  that  State  in  1835. 1  The  work  of  Horace  Mann 
in  Massachusetts  and  of  Henry  Barnard  in  Connecticut 
for  public  education,  was  not  unlike  that  of  Calvin  H. 
Wiley  in  North  Carolina  at  a  somewhat  later  date. 
Early  school  legislation  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina 
was  framed  on  a  theory  not  unlike  that  on  which  similar 
legislation  in  New  York  was  framed:  that  the  income 
from  the  literary  fund  and  a  small  tax  were  sufficient  for 
educational  purposes.  The  theory  on  which  schools  in 
Georgia  were  established  and  operated  was  more  or  less 
similar  to  the  theory  on  which  early  schools  in  Pennsyl- 
vania rested;  and  the  administrative  machinery  of  the 
school  system  in  Alabama  and  South  Carolina  and  other 
Southern  States  was  practically  the  same  as  that  for 
other  sections  of  the  country.  Except  for  details  of  ad- 
ministration, perhaps,  educational  custom  in  the  United 
States  before  1860  was  very  similar  in  every  section  of 
the  country. 

The  successful  application  of  the  democratic  theory  of 
government  to  public  education  is  the  essential  ideal  of 
the  origin  and  growth  of  our  state  school  systems.  This  is 
abundantly  illustrated  by  a  study  of  the  growth  of  our 
public  education  immediately  prior  to  and  just  following 
the  Civil  War.  And  it  is  none  the  less  true  of  one  section 
than  of  another.  When  the  story  of  this  educational  de- 
velopment is  properly  told,  without  the  usual  rhetorical 
embellishments  which  characterize  the  telling  of  a  popu- 
lar tale,  this  ideal  will  reveal  itself  as  a  characteristic  of 
all  earnest  effort  at  sound  educational  progress.  It  is  a 
long  way  from  the  payment  by  the  State  of  tuition  for 
the  majority  of  its  scholastic  population  for  three  or 
1  Wickershani,  History  of  Education  in  Pennsylvania,  p.  S69. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       219 

four  months  in  the  year  to  the  theory  that  the  State 
should  not  only  do  this,  but  should  even  provide  medical 
and  dental  attention  for  its  young  citizens  while  they  are 
in  school.  And  some  socialistic  educational  theorists  go 
further  and  believe  that  the  State  should  provide  free 
meals,  in  some  cases  clothe  the  children,  and  in  rarer 
cases,  perhaps,  pay  the  parents  for  the  time  their  chil- 
dren are  in  school.  The  theory,  however,  is  always  the 
same. 

The  theory  that  the  school  is  for  all  the  people,  the 
well-to-do  and  the  poor,  has  developed  slowly.  This 
slowness  has  been  due  to  the  varying  social,  political, 
and  economic  conditions,  as  well  as  to  the  fact  that  edu- 
cation is  marked  by  a  conservatism  equaled  only  by 
that  in  religion.  That  this  theory  has  developed  more 
rapidly  and  thoroughly  in  some  sections  of  the  country 
than  in  others,  no  one  now  questions;  that  in  most  sec- 
tions its  periods  of  growth  have  often  been  followed  by 
corresponding  periods  of  retardation  is  also  generally 
accepted.  It  is  also  agreed  that  the  Southern  States 
passed  tardily  through  the  so-called  experimental  stage 
in  their  educational  growth.  Hurried  comparisons  have 
been  made  of  conditions  in  the  various  sections  prior  to 
1860  in  an  effort  to  show  a  diversity  of  educational  the- 
ory and  practice  and  that  out  of  the  war  and  reconstruc- 
tion were  born  the  free  public-school  systems  of  the 
South.  That  certain  differences  did  exist,  and  that  re- 
markable changes  in  constitutional  and  legislative  pro- 
visions for  education  appeared  after  the  war,  no  one 
will  undertake  to  deny.  But  these  changes  were  not 
confined  to  the  Southern  States;  and  a  careful  study  of 
conditions  before  and  after  1860  shows  that  it  is  not  the 
differences  but  rather  the  similarities  in  the  essential 


220    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

features  of  public  education  in  this  country  which  are, 
after  all,  most  pronounced. 

General  opinions  formed  from  such  hurried  compari- 
sons of  conditions  have  led  to  the  more  definite  question, 
"What  influence  did  the  Reconstruction  or  'carpetbag* 
regime  have  on  education  in  the  South?"  Obviously  a 
satisfactory  answer  to  the  question  can  be  found  only  by 
a  detailed  and  careful  comparison  of  ante-bellum  with  re- 
construction and  post-bellum  conditions.  This  compari- 
son requires  a  clear  differentiation  both  of  the  periods 
between  1865  and  1876  and  the  plans  proposed  for  re- 
storing the  South,  and  of  the  classes  of  men  who  took 
part  in  the  formal  restoration  of  the  seceding  States  and 
in  the  work  which  followed. 

Of  the  two  plans  proposed  the  presidential  plan  of 
Reconstruction,  from  1865  to  18B7,  marks  an  attempt 
to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  native  white  citizens  in 
restoring  civil  order  in  the  South.  Under  the  congres- 
sional plan,  however,  from  1867  to  1876,  three  classes 
instead  of  one,  as  in  the  presidential  plan,  participated 
in  political  affairs :  the  native  whites,  the  negro  freedmen, 
and  men  from  the  North.  The  native  whites  were  sharply 
divided  into  two  classes,  the  conservatives  and  the  radi- 
cals or  "scalawags."  The  negroes  were  the  most  homo- 
geneous, usually  of  the  same  mind  and  easily  influenced; 
while  the  men  from  the  North,  commonly  known  as 
"carpetbaggers,"  were,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
South,  predominantly  radical.  The  Reconstruction  con- 
ventions and  legislative  bodies  from  1867  to  1876  were 
composed  largely  of  negroes,  carpetbaggers,  and  scala- 
wags, the  conservatives  in  most  cases  being  in  the 
minority. 

The  presidential  plan  of  Reconstruction  began  in 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       221 

North  Carolina  in  May,  1865,  when  President  Johnson 
appointed  W.  W.  Holden  provisional  governor  of  the 
State.  Holden  was  instructed  to  call  a  convention  for 
the  purpose  of  altering  the  state  constitution  in  such  a 
way  that  relations  with  the  federal  government  could  be 
reestablished.  Only  those  who  had  been  granted  amnesty 
by  taking  the  oath  prescribed  in  the  proclamation  of  the 
President,  May  29,  1865,  could  qualify  as  electors  or  as 
members  of  the  Constitutional  Convention.  Fourteen 
classes  of  people  were  exempted  from  the  benefits  of  the 
amnesty  proclamation,  but  hope  of  executive  clemency 
was  held  out  to  those  exempted,  through  application  to 
the  President  for  pardon.  A  large  number  of  persons 
were  pardoned  through  this  means.  The  election  of 
delegates  to  the  Convention  was  held  and  the  Conven- 
tion met  October  2,  1865.  The  body  was  very  largely 
composed  of  men  who  had  not  favored  secession.  "  Most 
of  them  were  old  Whigs,  who,  while  opposed  to  secession, 
had  submitted  to  the  will  of  the  majority.  With  these 
were  many  members  of  the  peace  party  during  the  war. 
The  delegates  were  unanimous  in  their  desire  to  restore 
the  State  to  normal  relations  with  the  federal  govern- 
ment, and  this  was  constantly  shown  as  the  session 
progressed."1  The  convention  abolished  slavery,  re- 
pudiated the  war  debt,  and  declared  the  ordinances  of 
secession  null  and  void. 

The  election  of  state  officers  and  of  members  of  the 
General  Assembly  was  held  November  9,  1865,  and  that 
body  met  November  27.  But  little  is  known  of  the  for- 
mer political  affiliation  of  most  of  its  members.  The 
uncertainty  of  the  legality  of  its  actions  prevented  the 
Assembly  from  concerning  itself  with  general  legislation, 
1  Hamilton,  Reconstruction  in  North  Carolina,  p.  121. 


222    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

and  after  a  short  session  it  adjourned  until  February. 
This  session  continued  until  the  middle  of  March,  giv- 
ing attention  also  primarily  to  private  legislation.  The 
only  act  of  educational  significance  was  one  to  abolish 
the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the 
office  of  treasurer  of  the  literary  fund. 

This  law,  which  was  passed  March  9,  1866,  allowed 
the  justices  of  the  county  courts  to  lay  and  collect  taxes 
at  their  discretion  for  common-school  support;  and 
county  school  communities  were  given  discretionary 
powers  to  grant  aid,  "to  the  extent  they  may  be  au- 
thorized by  the  court,  to  subscription  schools,  the 
teachers  of  which  have  qualifications  prescribed  for 
teachers  of  the  common  schools,  and  to  allow  such 
schools  to  be  carried  on  in  the  schoolrooms  of  their  dis- 
tricts." The  arguments  made  in  the  discussions  of  the 
bill  when  it  was  proposed  throw  light  on  the  actual  con- 
dition of  the  time.  The  literary  fund  was  indeed  inade- 
quate to  maintain  a  system  of  public  schools,  a  large 
part  of  that  previous  source  of  support  having  been  lost. 
Moreover,  the  people  of  the  State  were  impoverished  as 
a  result  of  the  war.  To  certain  members  of  the  Legisla- 
ture it  appeared  inexpedient  and  well-nigh  impossible 
to  support  a  system  of  schools;  to  others  the  great  service 
rendered  by  the  school  system  before  the  war  now  made 
the  necessity  for  its  revival  and  support  appear  the  more 
imperative.  Efforts  were  made  by  the  friends  of  the 
schools  to  get  appropriations  from  the  state  treasury, 
or  by  borrowing  money,  in  order  that  they  might  con- 
tinue. Finally  the  House  passed  a  bill,  by  a  vote  of  49 
to  40,  authorizing  an  annual  appropriation  of  $75,000 
to  assist  the  schools,  but  it  was  killed  in  the  Senate  by  a 
vote  of  23  to  14.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  was  out- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       223 

right  legislative  hostility  to  the  system,  however.  At  the 
same  session  the  Assembly  appropriated  $7000  to  re- 
lieve the  state  university  of  temporary  embarrassment. 
Many  of  those  who  voted  for  this  resolution  also  voted 
for  the  bill  to  abolish  the  office  of  state  superintendent  of 
schools.  They  did  so,  however,  because  there  was  no 
well-defined  and  adequate  plan  by  which  the  schools 
could  be  continued  except  by  taxation,  and  this  method 
could  hardly  have  been  afforded  at  a  time  when  the 
people  of  the  State  were  pathetically  poverty-stricken. 
There  did  appear  some  objection  to  Mr.  Wiley,  the 
superintendent  of  schools,  however;  and  in  all  the  de- 
bates on  the  bill  nothing  was  quite  so  strangely  severe  as 
certain  remarks  made  against  him.  In  one  of  his  recent 
reports  on  certain  swamp  lands  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
State,  which  were  the  property  of  the  literary  fund,  that 
officer  had  urged  that  the  lands  be  properly  surveyed 
and  drained  so  as  to  make  them  profitable  for  the  school 
fund.  There  was  a  mild  suggestion  of  gross  negligence 
in  the  administration  of  this  property.  It  appeared  that 
members  of  the  Legislature  from  that  part  of  the  State 
where  the  lands  were  situated  were  offended,  and  the 
remarks  of  one  member  were  particularly  bitter.  In  his 
opinion  the  office  of  superintendent  was  an  unnecessary 
expense;  a  salary  had  been  paid  that  officer  for  years 
and  he  had  been  of  no  use  on  "God  Almighty's  earth, 
and  the  State  was  unable  to  pay  a  salary  to  a  man  who 
merely  wrote  long  essays  and  drew  interminable  bills." 
This  objection  to  Wiley  seems  to  have  been  interpreted 
by  some  of  those  who  really  favored  the  schools  as 
objections  to  the  schools  themselves.  It  was  suggested 
that  this  opposition  originated  with  the  Finance  Com- 
mittee who  wished  to  divert  the  literary  fund  to  other 


224    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

purposes.  There  were  those  also  who  saw  in  the  condi- 
tion of  the  state  treasury  a  ready  use  for  the  remainder 
of  the  literary  fund.1  And  this  bankrupt  condition  of 
the  State  may  help  to  explain  the  strange  conduct  of  the 
Legislature  in  abolishing  the  office  of  superintendent. 

Whatever  the  explanation,  however,  this  legislative 
action  was  highly  inconsistent  with  the  former  policies 
of  the  lawmaking  bodies  of  the  State.  There  was,  to  be 
sure,  a  feeling  of  uncertainty,  a  lack  of  funds,  and  an 
absence  of  a  plan  which  seemed  to  be  feasible  for  main- 
taining a  school  system.  The  financial  condition  of  the 
government  was  deplorable.  But  it  was  unexpected  that 
the  State  which  claimed  ante-bellum  educational  lead- 
ership in  the  entire  South  should,  in  a  time  of  uncer- 
tainty, deliberately  abandon  its  schools,  transferring  all 
the  assets  of  the  school  fund  to  the  general  treasury  of 
the  State,  and  leave  all  matters  of  educational  concern 
in  local  hands,  whose  powers  were  permissive  and  dis- 
cretionary. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Legislature  of  1866-67,  how- 
ever, which  was  composed  largely  of  Whigs,  two  acts  of 
educational  importance  were  passed  which  tended  to 
make  amends  for  the  strange  conduct  of  its  predecessor. 
The  first  of  these  was  an  act  authorizing  towns  and  cities 
to  establish  public-school  systems  "to  be  supported  by 
the  taxes  collected  or  authorized  to  be  collected  for  cor- 
poration purposes."  Provision  was  made  for  local 
trustees,  for  a  local  board  of  education,  and  for  other 
features  of  a  modern  school  system.  All  towns  which 
established  public  schools  under  the  provisions  of  this 
law  were  required  to  set  apart  for  educational  purposes 
all  the  funds  which  could  be  spared  from  other  purposes; 
The  State  had  borrowed  $128,000  from  this  source  in  1863. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       225 

"and  in  addition  to  the  powers  of  taxation,  with  which 
they  are  already  invested,  they  shall  be  authorized  to 
levy  and  collect  a  poll-tax  on  every  white  male  inhabi- 
tant of  the  corporation,  over  twenty-one  years  old,  of 
not  more  than  two  dollars,  to  be  wholly  appropriated  to 
the  use  of  the  public  schools."  Provision  was  to  be 
made  "first,  for  primary  schools  for  all  the  children  who 
need  them,  and  if,  after  such  provision,  there  be  other 
funds,  they  may  be  used  for  schools  of  higher  grade " 

On  the  same  day  that  the  law  described  above  was 
ratified,  another  act  was  passed  "to  protect  certain  in- 
terests of  the  common  schools.'*  By  this  law  the  county 
courts  were  required  to  appoint  county  superintend- 
ents, similar  to  those  in  service  before  the  war,  and  to 
serve  under  the  same  rules  and  regulations.  Local 
trustees  were  to  be  appointed  as  in  ante-bellum  times, 
whose  duties  were  practically  the  same  as  those  of  the 
ante-bellum  officers.  Now  that  there  was  no  superin- 
tendent, all  official  returns  from  the  counties  were  to  be 
made  to  the  literary  board,  however.  The  law  was  an 
attempt  to  revive  the  former  system  of  schools. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  these  acts  were  passed 
by  the  native  white  citizenship  of  the  State  at  a  time  of 
great  confusion  and  uncertainty,  and  when  it  was  known 
that  Congress  would  replace  with  military  governments 
the  state  governments  as  organized  by  the  presidential 
plan.  In  view  of  these  conditions  the  acts  are  of  great 
importance.  They  are  evidence  of  an  interest  in  educa- 
tion which  was  rarely  seen  in  other  things,  and  of  a  de- 
termination to  protect  the  schools  at  whatever  cost. 
But  for  the  plan  of  congressional  Reconstruction,  which 
set  in  immediately,  the  history  of  education  in  North 
Carolina  would  be  a  different  story. 


226    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Jonathan  Worth,  who  had  defeated  Holden  in  the 
fall  election  of  1865,  was  reelected  governor  by  a  large 
majority  in  1866.  The  state  government  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  federal  government,  however,  and  political, 
economic,  and  social  conditions  were  constantly  growing 
worse.1  The  agitation  of  the  "rebel  question"  in  Con- 
gress, the  congressional  investigations  which  looked  to  a 
safe  plan  to  pursue  in  dealing  with  the  Southern  States, 
and  the  passage  of  certain  Reconstruction  legislation, 
each  had  its  peculiar  influence.  The  presidential  plan 
of  restoring  the  States  which  had  seceded  had  failed. 
Enough  of  the  Southern  States  had  rejected  the  Four- 
teenth Amendment  when  Congress  met  in  December, 
1866,  to  indicate  the  prevailing  opinion  in  that  section; 
and  when  the  Congressmen  from  the  South  presented 
themselves,  a  resolution  was  introduced  by  Thaddeus 
Stevens  and  passed  by  both  houses  of  Congress,  which 
forbade  the  admission  of  members  from  the  eleven 
Southern  States  until  Congress  had  decided  on  their 
eligibility  to  membership.  Nothing  could  be  done  until 
the  political  and  civil  status  of  the  various  States  had 
been  formally  determined  upon.  So  confusing  was  the 
condition  of  the  time  that  little  thought  or  attention 
could  be  given  to  matters  of  local  educational  concern. 
In  February,  1867,  it  became  known  that  the  state  gov- 
ernments as  organized  by  the  presidential  plan  of  Re- 
construction would  be  superseded  by  military  govern- 
ments and  that  the  suffrage  would  be  extended  to  the 
negroes.  For  the  purpose  of  administration  North 
Carolina  was  put  in  the  Second  Military  District  with 
South  Carolina,  in  command  of  General  David  E.  Sickles, 
who  was  later  succeeded  by  General  E.  R.  S.  Canby. 
1  See  Hamilton,  op.  cit.,  chap.  iv. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       227 

In  November,  1867,  a  Convention  was  called  for  the 
purpose  of  revising  the  constitution  of  the  State  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  congressional  plan  of  Reconstruction. 
In  spite  of  conservative  opposition  the  Convention  was 
voted  and  met  January  14,  1868.  The  composition  of 
this  body,  which  was  unlike  anything  ever  before  seen 
in  North  Carolina,  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
radicals  and  only  thirteen  conservative  members. 
Eighteen  of  the  radicals  were  "carpetbaggers/'  or  men 
from  the  North,  and  fifteen  were  negroes.  Not  a  few  of 
the  former  had  been  officers  in  the  Union  army  and  were 
more  or  less  prominent.  Among  the  more  intelligent 
ones  were  Albion  W.  Tourgee,  who  was  a  native  of  Ohio 
and  a  graduate  of  Rochester  University;  General  Byron 
Laflin,  of  Massachusetts;  Major  H.  L.  Grant,  of  Rhode 
Island;  the  Reverend  S.  S.  Ashley,  of  Massachusetts, 
who  became  the  first  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion under  the  Reconstruction  regime;  and  John  R. 
French,  of  New  Hampshire.  Of  the  negroes,  James  H. 
Harris,  J.  W.  Wood,  and  A.  H.  Galloway  were  men  of 
some  ability.  The  conservative  minority  contained  no 
members  of  political  importance,  and  only  two  of  them, 
Plato  Durham  and  John  W.  Graham,  both  of  whom 
were  "Confederate  soldiers  and  men  of  education,"  took 
any  prominent  part  in  the  work  of  the  Convention. 

On  the  same  day  that  the  Convention  met  the 
Raleigh  Sentinel  said :  — 

The  pillars  of  the  capitol  should  be  hung  in  mourning  to-day 
for  the  murdered  sovereignty  of  North  Carolina.  In  the  hall 
where  have  been  collected,  in  days  gone  by,  the  wisdom,  the 
patriotism,  the  virtue  of  the  State,  there  assembles  this  morn- 
ing a  body  eonvened  by  an  order  of  Congress,  in  violation  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  in  utter  disregard 
of  the  Constitution  of  North  Carolina,  a  body  which,  in  no 


228    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

sense,  as  a  whole,  represents  the  true  people  of  the  State,  which 
has  not  been  elected  according  to  our  laws  nor  chosen  by  those 
to  whom  those  laws  have  committed  the  right  of  suffrage. 
In  the  seats  which  have  been  filled  by  some  of  the  best  and 
truest  sons  of  North  Carolina  will  be  found  a  number  of  negroes, 
a  still  larger  number  of  men  who  have  no  interests  or  senti- 
ments in  common  with  our  people,  but  who  were  left  in  our 
midst  by  the  receding  tide  of  war,  and  yet  others  who  have 
proven  false  to  their  mother  and  leagued  with  her  enemies.1 

The  Committee  on  Education,  appointed  soon  after 
the  Convention  was  organized,  consisted  of  two  con- 
servatives and  eleven  radicals.  The  radicals  consisted 
of  seven  carpetbaggers,  two  of  whom  were  negroes,  and 
four  scalawags.  The  chairman  of  the  committee  was  the 
Reverend  S.  S.  Ashley.  From  time  to  time  resolutions 
in  reference  to  the  schools  or  school  funds,  introduced 
by  various  members,  were  referred  to  the  Committee  on 
Education,  which  made  its  first  report  on  March  6.  The 
report  was  signed  by  all  the  members  of  the  committee 
except  the  two  conservatives,  and  passed  the  first  read- 
ing with  but  little  discussion.  But  it  contained  no  pro- 
vision for  separate  schools,  and  Plato  Durham,  conserva- 
tive, offered  the  following  as  an  additional  section :  —  I 

The  General  Assembly  shall  provide  separate  and  distinct 
schools,  for  the  black  children  of  the  State,  from  those  provided 
for  white  children. 

Ashley  immediately  offered  the  following  as  an  amend- 
ment to  Durham's  proposed  section :  — 

It  being  understood  that  this  section  is  not  offered  in  sin- 
cerity, or  because  there  is  any  necessity  for  it,  and  that  it  is 
proposed  for  the  sole  purpose  of  breeding  prejudice  and  bring- 
ing about  a  political  re-enslavement  of  the  colored  race. 

After  some  discussion  the  previous  question  was  called 
1  Hamilton,  op.  cit.,  p.  256. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       229 

and  sustained,  Ashley's  amendment  was  adopted,  and 
Durham's  proposed  section  as  amended  was  rejected  by 
a  vote  of  86  to  11. 

Later,  when  the  Convention  was  considering  section 
eighteen,  J.  W.  Graham  sought  to  secure  provision  for 
separate  schools.  The  section  read :  — 

The  General  Assembly  is  hereby  empowered  to  enact  that 
every  child  of  sufficient  mental  and  physical  ability  shall  at- 
tend the  public  schools  during  the  period  between  the  ages  of 
six  and  eighteen  years,  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  sixteen 
months,  unless  educated  by  other  means. 

Graham's  amendment  to  this  section  was :  — 

Provided,  That  there  shall  be  separate  and  distinct  schools 
and  colleges  for  the  white  and  colored  races. 

Tourgee,  carpetbagger,  immediately  offered  the  fol- 
lowing as  a  substitute :  — 

Provided,  That  in  all  cases  where  distinct  schools  shall  be 
established,  there  shall  be  as  ample,  sufficient,  and  complete 
facilities  afforded  for  the  one  class  as  for  others,  and  entirely 
adequate  for  all,  and  in  all  districts  where  schools  are  divided, 
the  apportionment  to  each  shall  be  equal. 

Both  the  amendment  and  the  substitute  were  re- 
jected and  the  section  adopted.  The  entire  report,  with 
the  few  slight  verbal  changes  which  had  been  made, 
passed  the  Convention  by  a  vote  of  88  to  12,  and  became 
Article  IX  of  the  constitution.  The  constitution  was 
finally  adopted  by  the  Convention,  all  the  conservative 
members  voting  against  it,  however.  The  election  on  its 
ratification  by  the  people  of  the  State  was  held  April  21, 
22,  and  23,  1868.  The  number  registering  for  the  elec- 
tion was  117,428  whites  and  79,444  negroes,  and  the 
vote  was  93,084  for  the  constitution  and  74,015  against 
it.  More  than  29,000  registered  voters  neglected  to  vote. 


230    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

At  the  same  time  W.  W.  Holden  was  elected  governor  of 
the  State. 

The  new  constitution  provided  that  the  General 
Assembly,  in  its  first  session,  should  "provide  by  taxa- 
tion or  otherwise  for  a  general  and  uniform  system  of 
public  schools,  wherein  tuition  shall  be  free  of  charge  to 
all  the  children  of  the  State  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
twenty-one  years."  The  counties  were  to  be  divided 
into  convenient  districts,  "in  which  one  or  more  public 
schools  shall  be  maintained,  at  least  four  months  in  every 
year,"  and  the  county  commissioners  who  failed  to  com- 
ply with  this  requirement  were  "liable  to  indictment." 
The  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of  state, 
treasurer,  auditor,  superintendent  of  public  works, 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  attorney- 
general  constituted  the  state  board  of  education  to  re- 
place the  ante-bellum  literary  board.  Section  sixteen 
provided:  — 

As  soon  as  practicable  after  the  adoption  of  this  constitution, 
the  General  Assembly  shall  establish  and  maintain,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  university,  a  department  of  agriculture,  of  me- 
chanics, of  mining,  and  of  normal  instruction. 

Practically  no  changes  were  made  in  the  matter  of  the 
literary  fund,  the  section  dealing  with  that  subject  being 
a  copy  of  the  ante-bellum  law  on  the  same  subject.  The 
final  section  empowered  the  Legislature  to  enact 

that  every  child  of  sufficient  mental  and  physical  ability  shall 
attend  the  public  schools  during  the  period  between  the  ages 
of  six  and  eighteen  years,  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  sixteen 
months,  unless  educated  by  other  means. 

The  State  now  had  very  ample  constitutional  provi- 
sion for  schools,  more  mandatory  and  thorough  than  at 
any  previous  time. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       231 

The  Legislature  elected  in  1868  contained  thirty- 
eight  radicals  in  the  Senate  and  eighty  in  the  House. 
The  conservatives  numbered  twelve  in  the  Senate  and 
forty  in  the  House.  At  the  special  session  of  the  body  in 
July  but  little  work  of  an  educational  importance  was 
undertaken  except  the  introduction  of  a  few  resolu- 
tions which  concerned  the  literary  fund  and  certain 
other  features  of  a  school  system.  These  were  promptly 
referred  to  the  Committees  on  Education  which  were 
appointed  early  in  the  session.  The  House  Committee 
consisted  of  one  conservative  and  ten  radicals,  one  of 
whom  was  a  negro,  and  the  Senate  Committee  was 
composed  of  seven  radicals,  one  of  whom  was  a  negro. 
Each  committee  contained  members  who  had  been  in 
the  Constitutional  Convention. 

The  committees  did  not  become  active  until  January 
of  the  regular  session  which  met  in  November,  1868. 
The  message  of  Governor  Holden,  which  was  read  to  the 
Assembly  November  17,  recommended  the  immediate 
establishment  of  a  general  and  uniform  system  of  public 
free  schools.  The  executive  also  urged  provision  for 
separate  schools  for  the  two  races,  "but  in  other  re- 
spects there  should  be  no  difference  in  the  character  of 
the  schools,  or  in  the  provision  made  to  support  them." 
The  constitution  was  silent  on  the  subject  of  mixed 
schools,  though  the  carpetbaggers  seem  to  have  planned 
such  a  system,  and  had  given  the  matter  some  consid- 
eration in  the  Convention.  The  failure  finally  to  incor- 
porate in  the  constitution  a  provision  either  for  mixed 
schools  or  against  them  created  such  an  uncertain  con- 
dition as  to  bring  about  harmful  results  later,  even 
though  the  first  school  law  provided  for  separate  schools 
for  the  children  of  the  two  races.  As  for  school  support 


232     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  constitution  made  provision  for  the  expenditure  of 
three  fourths  of  the  entire  capitation  tax  for  educa- 
tional purposes. 

On  January  27,  the  chairman  of  the  Senate  Committee 
on  Education,  G.  W.  Welker,  a  minister  from  Pennsylva- 
nia, introduced  a  bill  providing  for  a  school  system,  which 
was  read  and  referred  to  the  committee.  On  February 
12,  after  having  been  reported  favorably  in  the  House, 
it  was  reported  back  with  certain  amendments.  On  Feb- 
ruary 23,  after  several  sections  of  the  bill  had  been 
adopted  in  the  Senate  with  but  little  significant  dis- 
cussion, J.  W.  Graham,  conservative,  who  had  been  a 
member  of  the  Committee  on  Education  in  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention,  sought  to  secure  a  provision  in 
the  bill  for  separate  schools,  and  his  amendment  pre- 
vailed by  a  vote  of  24  to  6.  The  six  opposing  votes  were 
cast  by  radical  members.  Numerous  attempts  were 
made  at  this  time  to  secure  amendments  dealing  with 
the  racial  question.  One  member  endeavored  to  have  in- 
serted in  the  bill  a  provision  to  prevent  the  teaching  of 
"the  doctrine  of  secession  and  of  the  lost  cause,"  but  the 
amendment  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  34  to  5.  Other 
amendments  suggested  that  "  textbooks  and  all  publica- 
tions prescribed  and  used  in  the  public  schools  should  be 
free  from  sectarian  and  denominational  and  partisan 
bias  in  religion  and  politics,"  and  that  instruction  should 
be  given  with  a  view  to  creating  that  sentiment  which 
would  foster  a  love  for  the  perpetual  union  of  the  States. 
One  member  sought  to  secure  an  amendment  to  prevent 
the  teaching  of  "the  sentiments  embodied  in  that  well- 
known  song,  'John  Brown's  Soul  is  Marching  Along.'" 
The  president  ruled  this  out  of  order,  however,  and  when 
the  member  appealed  from  the  chair  the  latter  was  sus- 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       233 

tained  by  a  vote  of  38  to  1.  Later  the  same  member, 
Love,  of  Jackson  County,  offered  as  an  amendment  that 
the  school  "committee  shall  never  employ  any  colored 
teacher,  male  or  female,  to  serve  as  such,  in  any  school 
wherein  white  children  are  to  be  instructed."  Another 
member  immediately  moved  to  amend  this  proposed 
amendment  by  adding,  "or  employ  white  teachers  to 
serve  in  any  school  wherein  colored  children  are  to  be 
instructed."  The  amendment  to  the  amendment  was 
adopted  by  a  vote  of  28  to  11.  Thereupon  still  another 
member  moved  to  amend  by  adding,  "That  no  white 
Democrat  should  teach  any  colored  girl,"  but  this  the 
chair  ruled  out  of  order.  And  then  the  original  amend- 
ment as  amended  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  21  to  19. 

Later  the  senator  from  Jackson  was  before  the  body 
again  and  on  the  same  subject.  This  time  his  suggested 
amendment  was  that  "No  colored  tutor  or  tutoress  shall 
ever  be  engaged  in  any  school  wherein  white  children  are 
to  be  taught."  Moore,  senator  from  Carteret  County, 
though  not  a  native  of  the  State,  offered  to  amend 
Love's  amendment  by  adding,  "nor  any  white  tutor  or 
tutoress  wherein  colored  children  are  to  be  taught." 
The  amendment  to  the  amendment  was  adopted  by  a 
vote  of  19  to  15,  after  which  the  original  amendment 
was  rejected  by  the  same  vote.  A  few  days  later  Welker, 
chairman  of  the  committee,  showed  signs  of  displeasure 
and  moved  the  indefinite  postponement  of  the  entire  bill, 
but  the  motion  was  lost  by  a  large  majority.  Finally  the 
bill  came  to  its  third  reading;  but  when  the  Senate  came 
to  vote  on  a  substitute  which  Welker  offered  for  a  por- 
tion of  the  proposed  legislation,  Love  and  another  con- 
servative refused  to  vote.  Later,  when  they  were  al- 
lowed to  explain  their  action,  Moore,  who  had  already 


234    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

opposed  Love  many  times  in  discussions  of  the  educa- 
tion bill,  arose  to  a  point  of  order  and  complained  that 
Love  was  not  confining  his  remarks  to  an  explanation. 
Love  remarked  that  the  gentleman  from  Carteret 
(Moore)  knew  nothing  of  the  affairs  of  North  Carolini- 
ans, was  not  interested  in  them,  and  besides,  he  was  a 
carpetbagger.  Moore  replied  that  the  gentleman  from 
Jackson  was  a  liar.  The  gentleman  from  Jackson  re- 
marked that  the  gentleman  from  Carteret  was  not  an 
ordinary  liar,  but  a  damned  liar,  and  a  final  epithet  was 
even  more  unbecoming  a  gentleman  of  senatorial  rank. 
The  encounter  grew  so  fierce  that  the  chairman  rebuked 
the  senators  and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  investi- 
gate the  case.  No  report  was  made,  however,  and  the 
records  do  not  show  which  of  the  "gentlemen"  was  cor- 
rect in  his  contention.1 

The  bill  finally  passed  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  30  to  10, 
March  17,  1869.  Three  days  later  it  was  received  in  the 
regular  order  of  business  in  the  House  where  some  minor 
verbal  changes  were  suggested,  and  was  finally  ratified, 
as  amended,  by  joint  conference  April  12.  The  law  was 
almost  entirely  the  work  of  the  Senate.2 

North  Carolina  now  had  a  thoroughgoing  and  definite 
school  law,  and,  with  reference  to  school  support,  more 
mandatory  and  less  discretionary  than  previous  acts  on 
the  subject.  The  law  provided  for  a  state  board  of  edu- 
cation and  prescribed  its  duties.  The  net  annual  income 
of  the  public-school  fund  (the  remainder  of  the  ante- 
helium  literary  fund)  was  to  be  distributed  among  the 
counties  of  the  State  in  proportion  to  their  scholastic 
population,  whenever  the  state  board  should  direct. 
County  commissioners  were  to  order  a  tax  for  sites  and 
1  Senate  Journal,  p.  432.      3  Senate  and  House  Journals,  'passim. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       235 

for  building  or  renting  schoolhouses,  to  be  assessed  and 
collected  in  the  same  manner  as  other  county  taxes. 
Local  township  committees  were  to  "establish  and  main- 
tain, for  at  least  four  months  in  every  year,  a  sufficient 
number  of  schools  at  convenient  localities,  which  shall 
be  for  the  education  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of 
six  and  twenty-one  years  residing  therein.,,  The  duties 
usually  belonging  to  such  officers  were  described:  to 
provide  a  schoolhouse  and  its  furniture;  to  employ  and 
dismiss  teachers;  to  maintain  all  the  schools  "for  an 
equal  length  of  time  during  the  year,  with  equal  rights 
and  privileges";  to  require  the  exclusive  use  of  the  text- 
books adopted  by  the  state  board;  to  visit  the  schools; 
to  gather  and  report  school  statistics;  and  to  attend  to 
the  details  of  the  administration  of  the  local  schools.  A 
county  examiner  was  to  be  appointed  by  the  county 
commissioners.  His  duties  were  to  examine  the  teachers, 
to  issue  certificates,  and  to  assist  in  enforcing  the  pre- 
scribed course  of  study  and  the  rules  and  regulations 
governing  the  schools.  The  certificate  granted  by  the 
examiner  was  to  be  valid  only  in  the  county  where  is- 
sued, and  no  person  could  teach  without  it.  Separate 
schools  were  to  be  established  for  the  children  of  the  two 
races;  "and  such  school  or  schools  shall  be  supported, 
regulated,  and  instructed  in  the  same  manner  and  to  the 
same  extent  as  any  other  public  school  or  schools  of  the 
same  grade." 

The  course  of  study  prescribed  by  the  new  law  con- 
sisted of  reading,  writing,  spelling,  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy, and  English  grammar,  and  "such  other  studies  as 
may  be  deemed  necessary."  Seventy-five  per  cent  of 
the  state  and  county  capitation  taxes  were  to  be  ap- 
plied to  public-school  support;  and  in  addition  to  this 


236    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

source  of  support,  "  in  order  that  the  schools  may  be  con- 
tinued for  a  term  of  four  months,*'  the  Legislature  ap- 
propriated the  sum  of  $100,000  "  out  of  any  moneys  in  the 
treasury  not  appropriated  otherwise."  All  school  funds 
were  to  be  apportioned  on  the  basis  of  the  school  census. 

In  case  any  township  failed  at  its  annual  meeting  "  to 
provide  for  schools  to  be  taught  at  least  four  months  for 
that  year,  and  to  provide  for  fuel,  and  to  make  any  other 
provisions  necessary  for  the  efficiency  and  success  of  the 
schools,  the  school  committee  shall  immediately  for- 
ward to  the  county  commissioners  an  estimate  of  the 
necessary  expenses,  and  a  tax  equal  to  the  amount  of 
such  estimate  shall  be  levied  on  the  township  by  the 
county  commissioners  at  the  same  time  that  the  county 
taxes  are  levied,  and  the  school  committee,  under  the 
direction  of  the  county  commissioners,  shall  provide 
whatever  shall  be  necessary  for  the  schools  for  four 
months,  and  pay  all  expenses  for  the  same  out  of  the 
funds  raised  by  the  tax"  thus  levied.  We  shall  have 
occasion  to  refer  further  to  this  provision  later. 

In  most  respects  the  law  of  1869  was  practically  the 
same  as  the  ante-bellum  educational  legislation  of  the 
State,  except  for  a  definitely  prescribed  school  term,  and 
provision  for  a  general  school  tax,  and  for  the  education 
of  the  freedmen.  With  these  three  exceptions  the  Recon- 
struction law  was,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  practi- 
cally a  copy  of  the  law  of  1839  and  its  subsequent 
revisions;  and  the  system  created  in  1869  was,  in  its 
essential  features,  manifestly  an  adaptation  of  the  sys- 
tem in  operation  in  the  State  before  the  war.  Concern- 
ing the  educational  changes  produced  by  the  war  and 
Reconstruction  more  will  be  said  in  the  next  chapter. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION       237 


REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  1868;  Journals  of  the  House  and  Senate; 
Public  Laws  of  North  Carolina;  Legislative  Documents; 
Weeks,  Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  Organization  of  the 
Common  Schools  of  North  Carolina;  Smith,  History  of  Education 
in  North  Carolina;  Fleming,  Documentary  History  of  Recon- 
struction; Hamilton,  Reconstruction  in  North  Carolina;  Hart, 
The  Southern  South;  Dunning,  Reconstruction  Political  and 
Economic;  Murphy,  The  Present  South;  Knight,  "The  In- 
fluence of  Reconstruction  on  Education  in  the  South;"  and 
"Some  Fallacies  concerning  the  History  of  Public  Education 
in  the  South,"  in  South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  October,  1914. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  was  the  difference  between  the  presidential  plan  of 
Reconstruction  and  the  congressional  plan? 

2.  How  widespread  was  the  belief  that  ante-bellum  edu- 
cational conditions  in  the  South  were  responsible  for  the 
war? 

3.  What  influence  did  slavery  have  on  public  education  in 
the  South  before  1860. 

4.  What  efforts  were  made  in  North  Carolina  between  1865 
and  1868  to  provide  educational  facilities  adapted  to  the 
changed  conditions?  What  was  done  in  other  Southern 
States  during  this  time? 

5.  Why  was  the  office  of  state  superintendent  of  schools 
abolished  in  1866? 

6.  Compare  the  composition  of  the  Legislature  of  1866  with 
that  of  1868.    Compare  the  work  of  the  two  bodies. 

7.  Compare  the  ante-bellum  constitutional  provisions  for 
education  with  those  made  by  the  convention  of  1868. 
In  what  respect  were  the  latter  provisions  more  advanced 
than  the  former? 

8.  Compare  the  ante-bellum  school  law  with  the  law  enacted 
by  the  Legislature  of  1868.  In  what  ways  was  the  Recon- 
struction act  more  thorough  and  advanced  than  previous 
school  legislation? 


CHAPTER  XII 

EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION 

The  elaborate  constitutional  and  legislative  provi- 
sions for  education,  enacted  in  1868  and  1869,  served  well 
as  the  framework  of  a  school  system  adequate  for  both 
races.  In  this  respect  the  work  of  the  Convention  and 
of  the  Legislature  had  been  well  done.  But  elaborate  edu- 
cational statutes  were  not  alone  sufficient  to  begin  and 
maintain  a  system  of  schools.  Moreover,  education  was 
now  confronted  by  new  and  peculiar  obstacles.  There 
was  a  feeling  of  uncertainty  and  insecurity,  caused  by 
the  changed  conditions  of  the  time  and  by  the  poverty 
of  the  State;  the  inexperience,  ignorance,  and  prejudice 
that  came  from  the  new  order  of  things  produced  dis- 
couraging circumstances;  and,  although  the  opinion  was 
gaining  that  schools  and  education  were  to  be  universal, 
there  was  an  apparent  lack  of  genuine  educational  in- 
terest. The  new  status  of  the  negro  also  complicated  an 
already  difficult  condition.  He  had  suddenly  been  given 
a  place  in  politics  without  any  preparation  for  it;  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  and  other  organizations  were  dis- 
bursing their  funds  recklessly  for  his  education;  school 
officials  were  often  foreign  in  their  sympathies  and, 
guided  by  questionable  motives  or  by  visionary  mission- 
ary zeal,  hoped  to  raise  him  to  a  place  of  universal 
brotherhood,  politically  and  socially.  A  new  power  had 
been  transferred  to  him  under  the  new  regime.  More- 
over, the  possibility,  under  the  constitution,  of  forcing 
mixed  schools  on  the  people  produced  a  constant  dread, 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        239 

—  though  it  was  not  so  well  founded  in  North  Carolina 
as  in  some  of  the  other  Southern  States,  —  and  doubt- 
less strengthened  a  natural  prejudice  against  such  a 
system.  And  this  was  a  consideration  of  much  weight, 
not  only  in  North  Carolina,  but  in  the  entire  South. 

S.  S.  Ashley,  a  minister  and  carpetbagger  from  Massa- 
chusetts, was  elected  the  first  superintendent  of  schools 
under  the  new  regime.  Though  an  earnest  man  and  of 
some  ability,  he  was  narrow  and  possessed  of  pro- 
nounced prejudices  which  made  him  imprudent  and 
reckless.  His  interest  in  a  system  of  mixed  schools  which 
he  wished  to  see  established  in  the  South,  and  his  tend- 
ency to  habits  of  his  kind,  together  with  the  fact  that  he 
was  said  to  be  of  negro  descent,  made  him  "one  of  the 
most  unpleasant  carpetbaggers  in  the  State." 

Ashley's  first  report  was  dated  November  10,  1868, 
and  appeared  before  the  new  school  law  had  been  en- 
acted. The  educational  system  had  been  only  partially 
organized  and  the  report  was  necessarily  very  brief,  but 
it  contained  a  few  interesting  educational  facts.  The 
total  amount  of  income  from  all  sources  for  educational 
purposes  was  shown  to  be  about  $32,000.  This  included 
the  annual  tax  on  auctioneers,  entries  from  vacant  lands, 
taxes  on  retailers,  and  a  slight  income  from  the  old  liter- 
ary fund.  Comparing  this  condition  with  the  liberal  fund 
for  school  support  before  the  war,  the  superintendent 
said:  — 

A  sad  diminution!  Prior  to  1861,  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dollars  found  their  way  into  this  treasury,  and  were  distributed 
over  the  State,  conferring  upon  not  less  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand white  children  the  blessings  of  the  free  school. 

Instead  of  a  great  fund  for  the  support  of  public  schools, 
henceforth  for  a  long  time  the  people  of  the  State  must  be 
taxed  for  this  purpose.   In  the  aggregate  the  tax  may  appear 


240    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

large  and  onerous.  But,  scanned  in  detail,  per  capita,  it  will  be 
seen  to  be  small.  But,  whether  large  or  small,  ignorance  is  a 
far  heavier  tax  than  education.  A  State  can  afford  to  be  poor, 
but  cannot  afford  to  be  ignorant. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  state  board  of  education  in  Sep- 
tember, 1868,  it  was  ordered  that  the  county  school 
officials  appointed  under  the  act  of  February  28,  1867, L 
immediately  assume  their  duties  under  the  new  consti- 
tution, and  make  the  usual  report  to  the  state  superin- 
tendent. By  this  means  the  new  school  system  was  able 
to  begin  work  on  the  organization  of  the  system  as  re- 
vived by  the  law  of  1867.  This  action  was  practically  all 
that  the  superintendent  was  able  to  report  in  November, 
1868.  The  condition  and  needs  of  the  university  were 
noted,  and  the  need  for  normal  schools  discussed.  In  this 
connection  the  superintendent  said :  — 

Within  four  years  the  free  schools  of  this  State  will  require 
at  least  four  thousand  teachers  —  good  teachers.  Unless  means 
for  training  these  teachers  are  immediately  instituted,  whence 
will  come  the  supply?  .  .  .  To  within  a  recent  period,  the  pro- 
vision made  by  this  State  for  free  public  Schools  was  not  only 
generous,  but  munificent.  All  circumstances  considered, 
scarcely  any  sister  State  of  the  Union  surpassed  North  Caro- 
lina in  this  regard.  A  new  era  has  now  dawned,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  the  future  care  of  the  Commonwealth  for  her  free  public 
schools  will  not  be  less  liberal  or  less  noble  than  the  past. 

In  August,  1869,  the  superintendent  believed  that  a 
few  schools  would  be  in  operation  by  the  following  Oc- 
tober and  that  many  communities  would  be  supplied 
with  schools  by  January,  1870.  School  taxes  were  to  be 
collected,  some  communities  had  to  build  new  school- 
houses,  and  the  school  machinery  set  in  operation  gener- 
ally. It  was  believed  that  the  available  public-school 
1  Seep.  224. 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        241 

fund  would  be  $300,000,  and  that  aid  from  the  Peabody 
Board,  which  was  being  solicited  for  towns  and  cities, 
would  not  only  furnish  immediate  material  assistance, 
but  would  also  serve  as  an  educational  stimulus  by  in- 
creasing the  schools  and  lengthening  their  terms.  In  less 
than  a  month,  however,  the  superintendent  had  changed 
his  opinion,  and  in  September  advised  the  agent  of  that 
fund  to  withhold  appropriations  to  any  towns  in  the 
State  until  the  townships  had  fulfilled  the  requirements 
of  the  law  in  establishing  schools.  Moreover,  the  super- 
intendent was  discouraged  because  the  taxes  were  coming 
in  slowly.  An  exhibition  of  the  several  sources  of  the  ed- 
ucational fund  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  September  30, 
1869,  showed  no  taxes  whatever. 

Ashley's  second  report  dealt  with  conditions  in  the 
State  during  the  year  ending  September,  1869.  The 
school  law  had  been  in  operation  only  a  few  months  and 
the  system  was  not  in  full  operation.  However,  all  the 
counties  except  Onslow  and  Edgecombe  had  reported  a 
few  facts  to  the  superintendent.  The  school  population 
for  that  year  was  330,581.  Of  this  number  223,815  were 
white  and  106,766  were  colored.  The  whole  number  of 
schoolhouses  reported  was  1906,  and  685  of  these  were 
described  as  in  bad  condition.  The  sum  of  $165,290.50 
was  apportioned  among  the  counties,  on  the  basis  of  the 
school  population,  an  amount  which  would  have  al- 
lowed about  fifty  cents  to  each  census  child.  But  the 
superintendent  "apportioned"  this  sum  on  the  assump- 
tion that  the  legislative  appropriation  of  $100,000  would 
be  available  and  that  at  least  an  equal  sum  would  be  de- 
rived from  the  capitation  taxes.  But  the  appropriation 
turned  out  to  be  only  a  paper  appropriation  and  was  not 
paid.  And  this  continued  to  be  the  case  throughout  this 


242    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

period.  In  fact,  not  until  1899  did  the  public  schools  of 
the  State  receive  any  legislative  appropriation  from  the 
general  treasury.  As  for  the  capitation  taxes,  on  which 
the  superintendent  was  also  depending  for  his  apportion- 
ment to  the  counties,  but  little  money  was  realized  from 
that  source.  This  condition  also  continued  for  several 
years.  For  the  year  ending  September  30,  1870,  the 
total  amount  of  taxes  collected  for  public  schools  was 
$136,076.92,  and  only  $38,981.86  of  that  sum  seems  to 
have  actually  gone  for  educational  purposes. 

Several  outside  educational  agencies  were  at  work  in 
the  State,  however,  and  rendered  excellent  service  dur- 
ing the  early  years  of  Reconstruction.  The  Baltimore 
Association  of  Friends  during  1869  established  for  white 
children  forty-four  schools  with  sixty-five  teachers  and 
an  enrollment  of  more  than  three  thousand  pupils.  These 
schools  were  located  in  Guilford,  Yadkin,  Iredell,  Ran- 
dolph, Alamance,  Orange,  Wayne,  Northampton,  and 
Perquimans  Counties,  and  had  an  average  term  of  more 
than  six  months.  Between  1865  and  1869  this  associa- 
tion built  thirty-two  new  schoolhouses  in  the  State.  The 
Soldiers'  Memorial  Society  of  Boston,  the  American 
Unitarian  Association,  and  the  Peabody  Board,  which 
had  begun  its  work  in  1867,  were  also  rendering  aid  to  a 
number  of  schools  in  the  larger  towns  of  the  State.1 

The  education  of  the  freedmen  was  also  receiving  at- 
tention from  a  number  of  sources.  Numerous  charitable 
and  religious  organizations  early  began  work  in  the  State 
and  furnished  needed  facilities  for  negro  education. 
Among  these  societies  were  the  New  England  Freed- 
men's  Relief  Association,  New  York  National  Freed- 

1  See  chap,  xm  for  a  discussion  of  the  work  of  the  Peabody  Board 
in  North  Carolina. 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        243 

men's  Relief  Association,  American  Missionary  Associa- 
tion, Friends'  Freedmen's  Aid  Association,  Freedmen's 
Commission,  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and  the 
Presbyterian  General  Assembly.1  Practically  all  these 
societies  were  also  at  work  in  South  Carolina  and  in 
other  Southern  States  at  the  same  time. 

Through  the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  established  by  Con- 
gress March  3,  1865,  the  education  of  the  negro  was 
further  aided.  By  the  act  creating  the  Bureau  no  pro- 
vision for  education  was  made,  but  soon  it  turned  atten- 
tion to  this  work  as  one  of  its  important  functions.  The 
Reverend  F.  A.  Fiske,  of  Massachusetts,  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  this  part  of  the  Bureau's  work  and 
launched  an  extensive  educational  campaign,  and  large 
numbers  of  negro  schools  were  established  and  carried 
on  with  zeal  and  effectiveness.  By  1869  there  were  431 
such  schools  in  the  State  with  439  teachers  and  more 
than  20,000  pupils.  Most  of  the  teachers  were  white  and 
practically  all  came  from  the  North.  Many  of  them 
were  earnest,  courageous,  and  devoted,  and  untiring  in 
their  efforts,  but  frequently  they  lacked  tact  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  actual  condition  and  needs 
of  the  class  for  whom  they  labored.  Indiscreet  criticisms 
of  the  South  and  of  the  Southern  people  tended  to  an- 
tagonize the  negroes  against  the  whites,  and  to  arouse 
among  the  latter  bitter  prejudice  against  the  Bureau's 
teachers  and  their  work.  Moreover,  failure  to  enlist  the 
sympathy  and  cooperation  of  the  influential  white 
people  of  the  State  created  an  unfortunate  attitude 
toward  the  education  of  the  negro  which  persisted  for 
many  years  after  the  work  of  the  Bureau  concluded. 

The  state  board  of  education  also  gave  special 
1  Hamilton,  op.  cit.,  p.  314,  note. 


244    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

attention  to  the  education  of  the  negro  by  creating  the 
office  of  assistant  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
This  action  was  taken,  however,  without  any  constitu- 
tional or  legislative  authority.  The  place  seems  to  have 
been  made  for  the  Reverend  J.  W.  Hood,  a  negro  carpet- 
bagger of  rather  unsavory  reputation,  who  had  served 
on  the  Committee  on  Education  in  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1868.  He  immediately  began  his  duties 
of  superintending  the  work  of  negro  education,  and  his 
report  for  the  year  1869  showed  numerous  negro  schools 
in  operation,  supported  by  church  and  charitable  socie- 
ties and  organizations.  More  than  150  schools,  with  224 
teachers  and  an  enrollment  of  11,826,  were  reported  in 
the  State  in  that  year.  Some  of  the  more  important  of 
these  were  conducted  by  the  Friends.  The  report  said :  — 

In  educating  the  freedmen,  the  Friends  are  doing  a  work 
of  praiseworthy  benevolence.  Without  expectation  of  fee  or  re- 
ward; without  attempting  to  teach  the  peculiar  tenets  of  their 
faith;  without  any  apparent  desire  to  advance  the  interest  of 
their  own  denomination,  they  are  laboring  to  dispel  the  mist 
of  ignorance  which  has  so  long  hung  over  the  colored  people  of 
the  South.  The  Bible  is  introduced  into  all  of  their  schools,  but 
is  read  without  comment.  The  teachers  are  selected  without 
regard  to  sex,  sect,  section,  nativity  or  complexion.  They  are 
particular,  however;  respecting  the  moral  character  of  the 
teachers. 

In  1869  the  Friends  were  maintaining  thirty-seven 
schools  in  North  Carolina  with  an  enrollment  of  nearly 
twenty-five  hundred  pupils.  Facilities  for  the  education 
of  the  negro  were  unexpectedly  extensive.  Nearly  all 
the  towns  contained  one  or  more  schools  for  the  freed- 
men, and  private  schools  and  Sunday  schools  were  also 
assisting  in  their  education.  Hood's  report  stated  that 
there  were  but  few  counties  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        245 

that  did  not  have  schools  in  which  negroes  were  re- 
ceiving instruction. 

Ashley's  report  for  the  year  ending  September  30, 
1870,  showed  that  the  State  at  that  time  had  1,071,361 
inhabitants  of  whom  391,650  were  negroes.  The  total 
number  of  public  schools  reported  as  maintained  in 
the  State  was  1398;  the  estimated  number  was  1415. 
Schools  were  kept  in  seventy-four  of  the  ninety  counties. 
The  whole  number  of  children  reported  attending  the 
public  schools  was  31,093;  the  estimated  number  was 
49,000.  The  school  population  was  about  229,000  white 
and  113,000  colored.  The  negro  schools  reported  by 
Assistant  Superintendent  Hood  numbered  347,  with  372 
teachers  and  23,419  pupils.  The  whole  number  of 
teachers  employed  was  placed  at  1400  with  an  average 
monthly  salary  of  $20.21.  The  number  of  schoolhouses 
reported  was  709;  of  these  309  were  frame  buildings  and 
358  were  log.  The  total  amount  of  revenue  available  for 
school  support  was  $152,281.82,  but  only  $42,862.40 
had  been  expended  for  schools.  The  Peabody  Board 
-was  aiding  the  better  regulated  schools  of  the  towns  and 
was  rapidly  stimulating  interest  in  education.  In  the 
main  the  school  system  was  as  successful  as  could  have 
been  expected  during  times  of  bitter  party  strife  and 
violence.  But  the  uncertainty  of  future  legislation, 
together  with  other  unfortunate  conditions,  had  created 
numerous  obstacles  for  the  friends  of  public  schools. 
Moreover,  there  were  many  inherent  defects  from  which 
the  system  suffered.  Teachers  were  scarce  and  incom- 
petent, the  school  law  was  defective,  there  was  a  lack  of 
school  funds,  school  officials  were  careless  and  negligent, 
and  textbooks  were  scarce.  It  is  interesting  to  note  here, 
however,  that  the  series  of  textbooks  which  the  board  of 


246  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

education  adopted  for  use  in  the  schools  contained  the 
same  readers  and  arithmetics  which  were  recommended 
by  Wiley  and  used  in  the  State  before  the  war.1 

Lack  of  funds  was  one  of  the  greatest  weaknesses  of 
the  system.  The  income  from  the  literary  fund  was 
small,  the  legislative  appropriation  could  not  be  paid, 
and  capitation  taxes,  seventy-five  per  cent  of  which  was 
designed  for  educational  purposes,  were  poorly  collected. 
In  March,  1870,  a  small  tax  of  one  twelfth  of  one  per 
cent  was  authorized  to  be  levied  on  the  taxable  property 
of  the  State  in  order  to  provide  means  of  paying  the 
legislative  appropriation  of  April,  1869,  but  the  tax  was 
neither  properly  levied  nor  properly  collected.  Less  than 
$23,000  was  derived  from  this  source  the  first  year. 
Only  a  small  part  of  the  apportionments  made  to  the 
counties  could  be  paid,  and  this  condition  continued  for 
several  years.  In  1871  there  was  no  additional  legisla- 
tive provision  for  schools,  and,  what  was  even  worse, 
county  officials  were  accused  of  applying  to  other  pur- 
poses the  school  funds  derived  from  state  and  county 
capitation  taxes. 

A  new  and  unexpected  cause  for  discouragement  ap- 
peared in  1870,  in  a  decision  of  the  supreme  court  which 
held  that  the  law  of  1869,  so  far  as  it  provided  for  local 
taxes  for  education,  was  unconstitutional  and  could  not 
be  enforced.  The  constitution  and  the  school  law  defi- 
nitely prescribed  the  manner  by  which  "a  general  and 
uniform  system  of  schools"  should  be  maintained  for 
four  months  in  the  year.  The  law  provided  that  local 
school  committees  should  annually  estimate  the  amount 
of  money  necessary  for  the  support  of  schools  during  the 
prescribed  term,  and  report  the  estimate  to  the  township 
1  Leg.  Doc.,  Session  1870-71,  no.  6. 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        247 

trustees  and  to  the  county  commissioners  ten  days 
before  the  annual  township  meeting.  In  case  the  town- 
ship failed  to  make  provision  for  the  necessary  funds  a 
local  tax  was  to  be  levied  for  the  amount  of  the  estimate. 
On  account  of  scarcity  of  funds  for  school  purposes  it 
was  obvious  that  a  considerable  tax  would  be  required 
on  each  district  to  maintain  a  school  four  months  each 
year.  It  was  also  obvious  that  the  straitened  financial 
condition  of  the  State  made  the  people  unwilling  to  be 
taxed  further.  The  result  was  that  the  local  officials 
failed  to  make  the  estimate  or  report  to  the  county 
officials,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  taxes  were  not  levied.  More- 
over, whenever  the  question  of  levying  a  tax  was  sub- 
mitted to  a  vote  of  a  community,  "  the  people,  without 
regard  to  party,  voted  against  the  tax  almost  unani- 
mously." 

The  question  soon  arose  as  to  whether  the  county 
commissioners  could  levy  the  tax  after  it  had  been  de- 
feated by  a  vote  of  the  people.  Section  seven,  article 
seven,  of  the  constitution  said:  — 

No  county,  city,  town,  or  other  municipal  corporation  shall 
contract  any  debt,  pledge  its  faith,  or  loan  its  credit,  nor  shall 
any  tax  be  levied  or  collected  by  any  officers  of  the  same, 
except  for  the  necessary  expenses  thereof,  unless  by  a  vote  of 
the  majority  of  the  qualified  voters  therein. 

If  funds  for  the  support  of  the  public  schools  were 
necessary  expenses,  a  tax  for  such  funds  could  have 
been  levied  without  or  even  against  a  vote  of  the  people. 
If  schools  were  not  a  public  necessity,  funds  for  their 
support  could  have  been  levied  only  by  a  vote  of  the 
qualified  voters  in  the  community. 

Craven  County  furnished  a  test  case.  The  school 
officials  of  a  certain  district  in  1870  estimated  the  ex- 


248    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

penses  necessary  to  provide  a  four  months'  school  and 
reported  the  estimate  to  the  trustees  of  the  township. 
The  question  was  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people  and 
a  majority  voted  against  the  tax.  However,  the  county 
commissioners  proceeded  to  levy  a  tax  on  the  property  of 
the  township  to  secure  funds  for  maintaining  the  school. 
Complaint  was  filed  that  the  commissioners  had  violated 
the  constitution  in  that  the  levy  had  not  been  authorized 
by  a  vote  of  the  people,  and  also  in  that  in  levying  the 
tax  the  constitutional  equation  of  taxation  had  not  been 
observed.  The  judge  ordered  a  temporary  injunction  to 
be  issued  until  the  defendants  could  appear  and  show 
cause  why  an  injunction  should  not  be  issued  to  restrain 
the  collection  of^the  levy.  The  defendants  answered 
that  in  making  the  levy  they  had  obeyed  the  constitu- 
tion and  the  school  law,  and  that  the  tax  did  not  require 
a  vote  of  the  people  because  it  was  levied  for  necessary 
expenses.  On  November  12,  1870,  the  injunction  was 
dissolved.  The  case  was  appealed  to  the  supreme  court, 
however,  and  in  the  following  January  decision  was 
given  in  favor  of  the  plaintiffs,  thus  reversing  the  order 
of  the  lower  court.  The  opinion  of  the  court  concerned 
two  points.  In  the  first  place,  it  was  held  that  the  tax 
was  not  a  necessary  expense,  within  the  meaning  of  the 
constitution.  The  second  point  concerned  the  equation 
of  taxation.  The  constitutional  limitation  of  state  and 
county  taxation  was  sixty-six  and  two  thirds  cents  on 
the  hundred  dollars'  valuation  and  a  capitation  tax  of 
two  dollars,  and  the  court  held  that  this  equation  had 
not  been  observed.1 

The  effect  of  this  decision  tended  to  be  destructive 
to  the  school  system.    One  clause  in  the  constitution 
1  65  N.  C.  153. 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        249 

required  the  county  commissioners  to  maintain  schools 
in  every  township  for  four  months  in  every  year,  while 
another  clause  made  it  impossible  to  do  so  legally.  With 
popular  opinion  against  levying  taxes  for  educational 
purposes  the  school  law  was  practically  ineffective  and 
the  continuance  of  schools  seemed  doubtful  unless  pro- 
vision could  be  made  for  them  by  correcting  the  defec- 
tive legislation  of  1869. 

When  the  Reform  Legislature  met  in  the  fall  of  1870 
there  was  evidence  that  some  relief  would  be  afforded. 
This  body  had  thirty-six  conservatives  in  the  Senate 
and  seventy -five  in  the  House;  the  radicals  had  fourteen 
in  the  Senate  and  forty-two  in  the  House.  Among  the 
radicals  there  were  three  negroes  and  two  carpetbaggers 
in  the  Senate  and  nineteen  negroes  and  two  carpet- 
baggers in  the  House.  Thomas  J.  Jarvis,  of  Tyrrell 
County,  who  had  been  a  prominent  conservative  in  the 
preceding  Legislature,  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House, 
and  E.  J.  Warren,  a  conservative  member  from  Beaufort 
County,  was  chosen  President  of  the  Senate.  With  the 
exception  of  two  acts,  one  reducing  the  salaries  of  state 
officers,  and  the  other  looking  to  "  the  better  protection 
of  the  literary  fund,"  no  legislation  of  educational  im- 
portance was  passed  at  the  first  session  of  this  Legisla- 
ture, which  concerned  itself  almost  entirely  with  the  im- 
peachment of  Governor  Holden.  The  first  of  these  acts 
was  passed  in  pursuance  of  a  policy  of  economy,  and 
both  laws  showed  the  conservative  reaction  to  the  radi- 
cal regime.  The  salary  of  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  was  reduced  from  $2400  to  $1500,  the  clerical 
force  of  his  office  was  removed,  and  no  money  was  al- 
lowed him  for  traveling  expenses.  Similar  reductions  of 
expenses  were  made  in  other  state  offices.    The  law 


250    THE  PUBLIC*  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

looking  to  a  better  protection  of  the  literary  fund  made 
it  unlawful  for  the  state  board  of  education  to  lend  any 
amount  of  public  funds  under  their  control  except  by 
legislative  direction. 

At  the  second  session,  begun  in  the  fall  of  1871,  a  new 
school  law  was  passed  which  looked  to  an  improvement 
in  conditions.  The  law  differed  from  the  law  of  April, 
1869,  which  it  repealed,  by  making  more  liberal  provi- 
sions for  school  support  and  by  providing  a  plan  by 
which  institutes  for  the  training  of  teachers  could  be 
held.  A  levy  of  six  and  two  thirds  cents  on  the  hundred 
dollars'  valuation  was  made  on  all  the  taxable  property 
and  credits  in  the  State,  to  be  collected  by  the  sheriffs 
under  the  same  rules,  regulations,  and  penalties  pre- 
scribed for  the  collection  of  all  other  county  taxes. 
A  special  capitation  tax  of  twenty  cents  was  also  levied 
for  school  purposes.1  At  the  next  session  of  the  Legis- 
lature, which  was  likewise  conservative,  an  annual  tax 
of  eight  and  one  third  cents  on  the  hundred  dollars' 
valuation  was  levied  on  all  the  taxable  property  in  the 
State,  and  the  special  capitation  tax  was  raised  to 
twenty-five  cents.  As  before,  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the 
state  and  county  capitation  taxes  was  applied  to  educa- 
tional support.  The  law  also  gave  authority  to  the  com- 
missioners of  each  county  to  levy  an  additional  tax  on 
the  property  and  polls  of  the  county  for  school  support, 
but  the  levy  had  to  be  authorized  by  a  majority  of  the 
qualified  voters.  The  defect  of  this  law  was  the  same  as 
that  of  previous  educational  legislation  in  the  State: 
the  right  of  local  taxation  was  granted  to  the  counties, 
which  would  often  vote  against  it,  and  was  withheld 
from  the  districts,  some  of  which  would  have  taxed  them- 
1  Lawa  of  1871-72,  chap.  189. 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        251 

selves  to  maintain  free  schools.  This  had  been  one  of  the 
chief  defects  of  the  ante-bellum  school  law. 

In  September,  1871,  after  his  salary  had  been  reduced, 
Ashley  resigned  his  position  as  superintendent  of  schools 
and  accepted  a  position  in  a  school  for  negroes  in  New 
Orleans.  To  fill  the  vacancy  Governor  Caldwell  ap- 
pointed Alexander  Mclver,  a  professor  in  the  state  uni- 
versity. He  had  been  considered  for  the  nomination  as 
the  Republican  candidate  for  the  position  in  April,  1872, 
but  was  defeated  by  James  Reid,  a  retired  minister  of 
advanced  years.  Reid  died  before  he  was  installed  and 
before  Mclver  left  the  office  to  which  he  had  received 
the  governor's  appointment.  The  governor  was  then 
urged  to  appoint  G.  W.  Welker  to  the  position,  but  he 
refused  to  do  so,  and  instead  appointed  Kemp  P.  Battle, 
who  accepted  the  place.  Mclver  refused  to  surrender 
the  position,  however,  and,  being  sustained  by  the 
supreme  court  in  his  contention  that  there  was  no  va- 
cancy because  no  successor  had  legally  qualified,  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  the  position  until  the  next  election.1 

Mclver's  report  for  the  year  ending  September,  1872, 
showed  that  the  total  amount  of  state  funds  expended 
for  school  support  in  the  State  was  $155,393.96.  The 
sum  of  $35,675.52  was  received  from  property  taxes  in 
seventy-six  counties  during  the  year,  and  about  $108,000 
was  derived  from  capitation  taxes.  Certain  donations 
and  a  few  items  from  other  sources  brought  the  total 
school  fund  up  to  about  $332,000.  The  school  popula- 
tion reported  was  267,938,  of  which  number  182,698 
were  white  and  85,240  colored  children.  The  enrollment 
in  the  public  schools  showed  34,294  white  and  16,387 
colored  children.  The  number  of  teachers  examined  and 
1  Hamilton,  op.  cit.,  p.  616. 


252    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

approved  was  2132,  as  follows:  white  males,  1261,  fe- 
males, 413;  colored  males,  317,  females,  141. 

Incomplete  reports  from  the  counties  make  a  fair 
view  of  educational  conditions  during  that  year  almost 
impossible.  The  number  of  schools  in  operation  could 
not  be  ascertained  or  safely  estimated,  and  the  average 
school  term  and  teachers*  salaries  also  failed  to  be  noted. 
As  for  the  proportionate  distribution  of  the  school  funds 
between  the  two  races,  it  appeared  that  the  sum  of 
$71,861.35  was  paid  for  the  education  of  the  white  chil- 
dren in  forty-six  counties,  and  $27,256.19  for  the  colored 
children  in  the  same  counties.  Conditions  in  general 
showed  but  little  improvement.  One  sign  of  interest 
and  improvement  appeared,  however,  in  the  organiza- 
tion and  maintenance  of  teachers'  institutes  in  1872. 
This  means  of  improving  the  teachers  of  the  State  was 
made  possible  by  the  law  of  February,  1872,  which  ap- 
propriated fifty  dollars  to  each  institute  organized  and 
held  in  the  State,  a  sum  which  was  supplemented  by 
a  like  amount  from  the  Peabody  Board.  As  a  result 
six  institutes  were  held  within  a  year  after  the  law 
was  passed :  the  Cape  Fear  Teachers'  Institute,  held  at 
Wilmington;  the  Cherokee  Teachers'  Institute,  held  at 
Murphy;  the  Graham  County  Teachers'  Institute,  held 
at  Fort  Montgomery;  the  Lowell  Normal  Institute,  held 
at  Newbern;  the  Friends'  Institute,  held  at  Springfield; 
and  the  Ellendale  Teachers'  Institute,  held  in  Alexander 

%  County.  The  institutes  continued  for  four  weeks,  and 
the  attendance  on  each  varied  from  thirty-seven  to  fifty 
teachers. 

In  spite  of  an  improvement  in  school  legislation  condi- 

_  tions  continued  far  from  satisfactory,  and  the  general 
aspects  of  education  were  undergoing  but  few  changes. 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        253 

The  principle  of  education  by  public  taxation  had  been 
settled  upon,  but  the  application  of  that  principle  and 
the  adjustment  of  the  school  system  to  the  needs  and 
conditions  of  the  State  proved  more  difficult  tasks.  The 
school  law  was  defective,  there  was  indifference  on  the 
part  of  the  people,  the  local  tax  provision  was  proving 
vague  and  uncertain,  and  litigation  was  often  resorted 
to  by  those  who  were  opposed  to  it.  Local  taxes  were 
frequently  not  levied  or  collected  and  the  state  taxes 
were  often  uncertain  and  tardy  in  becoming  available 
for  school  purposes.  The  law  which  required  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  school  funds  from  other  public  funds  was 
not  always  observed,  and  unscrupulous  officials  were 
sometimes  accused  of  using  the  school  funds  for  other 
purposes.  The  schools  languished  or  were  suspended  for 
want  of  efficient  administration.  Dr.  Sears,  the  general 
agent  of  the  Peabody  Board,  saw  all  these  disorders  in 
the  State  in  1872,  and  at  the  same  time  the  superintend- 
ent complained  of  the  same  conditions.  At  no  time  since 
the  war  had  the  conservative  political  party,  which  was 
laboring  for  social,  economic,  and  political  reform,  faced 
such  a  crisis.  The  popular  mind  was  confused  and  con- 
fidence was  generally  shaken. 

Nothing  was  more  confusing  and  alarming  to  the 
people  of  the  State  than  the  fear  of  mixed  schools. 
Although  the  school  law  provided  for  an  educational 
separation  of  the  races,  the  constitution  was  silent  on 
the  subject,  and  there  was  a  constant  dread  that  by  some 
means  mixed  schools  would  be  forced  on  the  people. 
Local  conditions  were  made  even  more  alarming  through 
the  attitude  of  Congress  and  its  agitation  of  the  Civil 
Rights  Bill  which  looked  to  securing  to  freedmen  rights 
identical  with  whites  in  hotels,  in  public  conveyances, 


254    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

in  schools,  churches,  and  theaters.  The  measure  passed 
the  United  States  Senate  May  23,  1874,  and  provided 
that 

All  citizens  and  persons  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  entitled  to  full  and  equal  enjoyment  of  the 
advantages  of  the  common  schools  and  other  institutions  of 
learning  and  benevolence  without  distinction  of  race,  color,  or 
previous  condition  of  servitude. 

It  had  considerable  support  in  the  House  of  Repre^ 
sentatives,  but  not  enough  to  take  it  from  the  table  out 
of  its  order,  and  the  measure  was  not  enacted.  Its  agi- 
tation, however,  which  was  deplored  by  all  friends  of  ed- 
ucation, of  both  political  parties,  temporarily  retarded 
educational  progress  in  every  Southern  State.  In  North 
Carolina,  as  in  the  entire  South,  opposition  to  mixed 
schools  was  very  strong.  When  the  measure  was  pending 
in  Congress,  Senator  Merrimon  asked  the  state  superin- 
tendent concerning  the  probable  effect  on  the  schools  in 
North  Carolina  if  the  bill  became  a  law.  Mclver  re- 
plied: — 

No  legislation  in  favor  of  mixed  schools  has  ever  been  at- 
tempted in  this  State.  Public  sentiment  on  this  subject  is  all 
one  way.  Opposition  to  mixed  schools  is  so  strong  that  if  the 
people  are  free  to  choose  between  mixed  schools  and  no  schools, 
they  will  prefer  the  latter.  The  friends  of  education  would 
therefore  deprecate  and  most  sincerely  deplore  any  congres- 
sional legislation  which  might  tend  to  force  mixed  schools 
upon  the  people. 

This  was  also  the  opinion  of  the  Peabody  Trustees, 
who  doubted  the  origin  of  certain  petitions  to  Congress 
and  did  not  believe  that  they  represented  the  saner 
sentiments  of  the  colored  people.  The  conclusion  of  a 
special  committee,  to  which  was  referred  that  part  of 
Dr.  Sears's  report  in  1874  which  dealt  with  the  subject, 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        255 

was  unanimously  adopted  as  a  resolution.  The  resolu- 
tion held  that 

the  prospects  and  hopes  of  the  public  systems  of  education  in 
the  South  will  receive  a  serious,  if  not  fatal  blow,  from  any 
legislation  which  should  make  such  systems  of  education 
maintainable  only  upon  the  scheme  of  "mixed  schools"  as  the 
organization  requisite  for  such  public  education. 

The  trustees  maintained  that  justice,  public  duty,  and 
the  interests  of  both  races  demanded  equality  of  oppor- 
tunity, and  that  no  such  result  could  be  promoted  by 
a  compulsory  system  of  mixed  schools.  They  also  be- 
lieved that  such  a  system  would  not  only  be  pernicious, 
but  that  the  greater  share  of  the  disastrous  influence 
would  be  visited  on  the  negro  whose  wants  had  all  the 
while  been  the  subject  of  diligent  inquiry  and  of  anxiety 
to  the  Peabody  Board.1 

The  effect  of  the  proposed  legislation  was  everywhere 
widely  felt  in  the  South.  In  North  Carolina  contracts 
for  building  new  schoolhouses  were  held  up,  engagements 
with  teachers  were  suspended,  school  officials  resigned, 
and  state  legislation  which  looked  to  an  improvement  in 
the  school  system  was  delayed.  The  most  conspicuous 
example  of  this  was  a  bill  which  provided  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  city  school  systems  in  the  State.  This  bill 
was  introduced  in  the  Legislature  of  1872-73  and  for  a 
time  was  favorably  considered.  It  was  finally  dropped, 
however,  under  the  apprehension  that  the  Civil  Rights 
Bill  would  become  a  law.1 

For  the  year  ending  June  SO,  1873,  only  sixty-three 
counties  made  official  reports  of  educational  conditions. 

1  Proceeding*,  Peabody  Board  Trustees,  vol.  i,  p.  411. 

*  For  the  influence  of  the  measure  on  education  in  Virginia  see  the 
author's  discussion  of  the  subject  in  the  South  Atlantic  Quarterly  for 
January  and  April,  1916. 


256    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

From  these  it  appeared  that  the  school  population  of 
the  State  was  348,603,  of  which  number  233,751  were 
white  and  114,852  were  colored.  The  enrollment  of 
white  children  was  106,039,  with  an  estimated  daily 
average  attendance  of  70,872.  The  number  of  colored 
children  enrolled  was  40,428,  with  an  estimated  daily 
average  attendance  of  26,958.  It  was  estimated  that  the 
number  of  public  schools  for  white  children  was  2565, 
and  the  number  for  colored  children,  746.  The  average 
school  term  was  only  ten  weeks.  The  estimated  number 
of  white  teachers  examined  and  approved  during  the  year 
was  2160;  the  number  of  colored  teachers  examined 
and  approved  was  530.  The  entire  public  school  fund 
derived  from  all  sources  for  the  year  was  $408,830.67, 
and  the  total  disbursements  were  $191,675.07.  Of  the 
disbursements  the  sum  of  $112,175.36  was  expended 
for  the  salaries  of  white  teachers,  and  $45,954.19  for  the 
salaries  of  negro  teachers.  The  sum  of  $25,100  was 
expended  for  building  and  repairing  schoolhouses,  the 
sum  of  $1520  was  paid  examiners,  and  $6025.52  was 
paid  to  the  county  treasurers  as  commissions  for  hand- 
ling the  school  funds.  A  balance  of  $217,155.60  was  still 
in  the  hands  of  the  county  treasurers  June  30,  1873. 

In  spite  of  the  discouraging  conditions  which  sur- 
rounded the  school  system,  one  hopeful  sign  of  educa- 
tional interest  appeared  in  the  summer  of  1873.  In  April 
of  that  year  the  state  board  of  education  called  all  the 
friends  of  the  schools  to  an  educational  convention  to  be 
held  in  Raleigh  in  July.  The  call  was  cheerfully  re- 
sponded to  and  the  convention  attended  by  represen- 
tative men  of  both  "political  parties,  of  all  the  leading 
religious  denominations,  and  of  the  principal  institutions 
of  the  State.".    The  convention  continued  three  days, 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        257 

during  which  time  the  educational  conditions  of  the 
State  were  discussed  and  plans  made  for  improvement. 
Addresses  were  made  by  Governor  T.  R.  Caldwell, 
Calvin  H.  Wiley,  President  Braxton  Craven  of  Trinity 
College,  Professor  W.  C.  Doub  of  Greensboro  Female 
College,  Principal  Robert  Bingham  of  the  Bingham 
School,  Professor  W.  G.  Simmons  of  Wake  Forest  Col- 
lege, Judge  William  H.  Battle,  Senator  A.  S.  Merrimon, 
and  other  prominent  men  of  the  State.  Among  the  reso- 
lutions adopted  by  the  convention  were  the  following :  — 

That  the  general  educational  interests  of  this  State  are 
deplorable  and  alarming  in  a  high  degree,  and  are  such  as  to 
require  the  noblest  and  most  self-sacrificing  efforts  of  every 
true  son  of  North  Carolina  to  relieve  her  from  such  serious 
embarrassment. 

That  this  convention  respectfully  but  earnestly  request 
and  urge  every  friend  of  the  State,  the  people,  and  particu- 
larly the  clergy,  all  public  speakers  and  the  press,  to  be  zealous 
and  constant  in  making  efforts  to  arouse  the  whole  people  to 
a  realizing  sense  of  the  paramount  importance  of  education, 
and  especially  of  common  schools,  to  the  rising  and  coming 
generations,  and  of  the  overruling  necessity  for  universal,  active 
and  cordial  cooperation  of  all,  to  avoid  the  blight  and  the  dis- 
grace of  ignorance. 

Reports  were  submitted  on  the  subjects  of  compulsory 
education,  agricultural  education,  normal  schools,  text- 
books, educational  journalism,  school  funds  and  taxation, 
higher  education,  improved  methods  of  teaching,  and 
other  subjects  of  educational  importance.  A  permanent 
organization  was  formed  with  Judge  W.  H.  Battle  as 
president;  a  resolution  was  adopted  recommending  the 
organization  of  permanent  county  associations;  and, 
through  the  influence  and  efforts  of  Dr.  Craven,  a  plan 
was  begun  for  the  publication  of  an  educational  journal. 

The  second  annual  meeting  was  held  in  Raleigh  in 


258    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

July,  1874,  and  continued  three  days.  In  addition  to 
addresses  by  Governor  Caldwell  and  President  Battle 
the  following  papers  were  read  and  discussed:  — 

"Hygiene  in  the  Schools,"  by  Dr.  S.  S.  Satchwell. 

"Normal  Methods,"  by  Superintendent  H.  B.  Blake. 

"Education  in  Congress,"  by  Senator  A.  S.  Merrimon. 

"Education  by  the  Public  Press,"  by  Rev.  T.  H.  Pritchard, 
D.D. 

"Examinations,  Certificates,  and  Diplomas,  Tests  of 
Scholarship,"  by  Dr.  Braxton  Craven. 

"Higher  Education  in  North  Carolina,"  by  Ralph  H. 
Graves. 

"History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina,"  by  Dr.  Calvin 
H.  Wiley. 

"The  Duty  of  the  State  to  educate  her  Children,"  by  W. 
N.  H.  Smith. 

"Multiplicity  of  Studies,"  by  Osborne  Hunter,  Jr. 

"Graded  Schools,"  by  Superintendent  J.  B.  Boone. 

"Methods  of  Teaching,"  by  Rev.  Charles  Phillips,  D.D.    { 

"Public  Education,"  by  Rev.  Father  J.  V.  McNamara. 

"Education  in  Georgia,"  by  Superintendent  Martin  V. 
Calvin,  of  Augusta,  Georgia. 

At  this  session  plans  were  made  for  an  educational 
campaign  and  for  memorializing  the  Legislature  for 
assistance  in  improving  the  public-school  system.  Con- 
siderable interest  appeared  in  the  work  of  the  conven- 
tion and  in  the  activities  which  were  proposed.  Espe- 
cially did  it  stimulate  institute  work  in  several  sections 
of  the  State  and  encourage  attention  to  the  training  of 
teachers.  A  few  teachers'  institutes  were  reported  in 
1873  and  others  the  following  year.  Among  those  in 
operation  in  1874  several  were  attracting  wide  attention 
and  were  producing  creditable  results.  Ellendale  Teach- 
ers' Institute,  in  Alexander  County,  had  an  enrollment 
of  forty-four  teachers  and  a  library  of  "fifty  volumes 
of  standard  normal  and  educational  works,  and  about 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        259 

thirty  others  of  general  interest  to  teachers."  Meetings 
were  held  twice  a  month  when  topics  of  educational 
interest  were  discussed.  The  Pinewoods  Teachers' In- 
stitute, in  Davidson  County,  held  annual  sessions  of  one 
month  each.  In  1874  forty-three  were  enrolled.  "At 
each  of  these  sessions  lectures  were  given  by  prominent 
teachers  and  other  distinguished  gentlemen  from  abroad, 
and  much  interest  was  manifested  by  the  popular  gath- 
erings to  witness  the  exercises."  In  the  Asheboro  Normal 
School  the  enrollment  was  one  hundred  in  1873  and 
seventy-five  in  1874.  Much  interest  was  being  created 
in  public  education  through  the  work  of  this  school. 
The  Lexington  Normal  School,  organized  by  the  David- 
son County  Board  of  Education,  under  a  special  act 
of  the  Legislature,  had  annual  sessions  of  twenty-five 
days,  and  gave  instructions  to  the  teachers  of  both  races. 
In  1874  the  enrollment  showed  seventy-one  teachers, 
thirty-six  white  and  thirty-five  colored,  who  were  in- 
structed separately.  The  Cape  Fear  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation held  annual  sessions  of  one  month,  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  superintendent.  This  work  began  in  1872. 
"Superintendent  Blake  has  since  that  time  continued 
to  meet  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools  in  different 
parts  of  the  county  on  stated  days,  and  instruct  them 
in  the  modes  of  teaching,  and  has  thus  contributed  much 
to  public  schools  in  New  Hanover  County."  Most  of 
these  institutes  were  organized  under  the  law  of  1872, 
which  was  later  repealed;  but  through  encouragement 
and  assistance  given  by  the  Peabody  Board  and  the 
Educational  Association,  they  were  continuing  their 
work  with  marked  success. 

Reports  for  the  year  ending  June  SO,  1874,  showed 
some  educational  improvement  in  the  State.     Public 


260    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

school  funds  for  the  year  amounted  to  $496,405.23,  and 
the  disbursements  were  as  follows :  — 

To  teachers  of  white  schools $182,646 .  53 

To  teachers  of  colored  schools 77,615 .  25 

For  school  houses 22,676 .46 

For  services  of  county  examiners 2,854 .  55 

For  commissions  of  county  treasurers . .  11 ,802 .  06 

Total $297,594.85 

Balance  in  the  hands  of  the  county 

treasurers $198,810.38 

Of  the  total  school  population  of  369,960  the  white 
children  numbered  242,768  and  the  colored  127,192. 
There  were  2820  schools  for  white  children  and  1200 
for  colored  children,  with  enrollments  of  119,083  and 
55,000,  respectively.  The  number  of  teachers  exam- 
ined during  the  year  was  2875,  as  follows:  white  males, 
1495,  females,  613;  colored  males,  515,  females,  252. 
The  average  school  term  was  estimated  at  ten  weeks. 
The  superintendent  made  two  recommendations  to  the 
Legislature :  appointment  of  a  county  superintendent  of 
schools  in  every  county  in  the  State,  the  positions  to  be 
filled  by  practical  teachers  of  high  qualifications,  and 
provision  for  the  training  of  teachers  by  county  institutes 
or  normal  schools. 

In  that  same  year,  1874,  the  conservatives  nominated 
Stephen  D.  Pool  for  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Mclver  had  rendered  valuable  service  and  should  have 
been  retained  in  office,  but  unfortunately  for  the  schools 
the  position  was  kept  in  politics,  from  which  connection 
the  cause  of  education  suffered.  Pool  was  elected  and 
assumed  the  duties  of  .the  office  January  1,  1875,  serving 
until  July  of  the  following  year.  At  that  time  he  was 
charged  with  irregularities   in  the   handling  of  funds 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION         261 

appropriated  to  the  State  by  the  Peabody  Board  while  he 
served  as  its  agent  in  the  State.  The  irregularities, 
which  were  so  gross  as  to  suggest  intentional  fraud,  so 
incensed  "his  party,  which  had  made  official  corruption 
the  chief  count  of  its  indictment  against  the  Republi- 
cans," that  Pool  was  forced  to  resign:  Governor  Brog- 
den  appointed  John  Pool,  a  "discredited  politician,"  to 
the  position,  which  he  held  until  January,  1877,  when 
John  C.  Scarborough  was  inaugurated.1  I 

The  year  1876  is  usually  taken  as  the  date  which 
I  marked  the  overthrow  of  Reconstruction  and  the  end 
of  foreign  rule  in  the  Southern  States.  In  that  year  the 
conservative  element  regained  control  of  the  state  gov- 
ernments. In  North  Carolina  the  first  step  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  Reconstruction  regime  began  with  the 
impeachment  and  trial  of  Governor  Holden  by  the  Legis- 
lature of  1870-71 ;  the  concluding  steps  were  taken  by  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1875  and  the  campaign 
which  followed  the  next  year.  The  work  of  the  Conven- 
tion was  of  great  importance  politically  and  socially, 
many  changes  being  made  which  promised  the  promo- 
tion of  peace  and  good  government  in  the  State.  Edu- 
cationally, also,  the  constitutional  changes  made  it 
possible  for  the  State  to  advance,  for  there  was  now  no 
further  fear  of  the  possibility  of  mixed  schools.  Unlike 
the  constitution  of  1868,  that  of  1876  required  separate 
schools  for  the  children  of  the  two  races. 

The  first  Legislature  under  the  new  constitution, 
which  went  into  effect  January  1,  1877,  passed  two  acts 
of  great  educational  significance.  The  first  of  these  was 
the  law  establishing  two  normal  schools,  one  for  each 

1  Hamilton,  op.  cit.,  pp.  617-18;  Proceedings,  Peabody  Board  Trus- 
tees, vol.  II,  pp.  65,  66,  74. 


262    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

race,  "for  the  purpose  of  teaching  and  training  young 
men"  for  teachers  in  the  common  schools  of  the  State. 
The  sum  of  $2000  was  annually  appropriated  and  paid 
from  the  state  treasury  to  support  each  school.  These 
or  larger  sums  continued  thus  to  be  appropriated  and 
paid  for  that  purpose  for  many  years.  The  law  required 
and  expected  all 

of  >both  races,  who  may  be  thus  taught  and  trained  for  teachers 
of  common  schools,  at  the  cost  of  the  State,  to  apply  them- 
selves, as  far  as  practicable,  to  the  occupation  of  teaching, 
within  the  borders  of  this  State,  for  a  term  of  not  less  than 
three  years  after  leaving  school.1 

The  other  significant  piece  of  educational  legislation 
enacted  in  1877,  as  soon  as  the  conservatives  regained 
power  in  the  State,  was  an  act  giving  authority  to  town- 
ships of  a  certain  population  to  levy  taxes  for  the  sup- 
port of  public  graded  schools.  The  law  required  a  ma- 
jority of  the  qualified  voters  of  the  township  to  favor 
the  levy  before  the  tax  could  be  legal.  When  legally 
ordered,  however,  a  property  tax  of  one  tenth  of  one  per 
cent  and  a  capitation  tax  of  thirty  cents  could  be  col- 
lected for  educational  purposes.  The  former  property 
tax  of  eight  and  one  third  cents  and  the  capitation  tax 
of  twenty-five  cents  were  continued  for  general  school 
support.  Dr.  Sears,  general  agent  of  the  Peabody  Board, 
expressed  delight  at  these  advanced  legislative  steps, 
declaring:  — 

Public  schools  were  now  fairly  put  upon  their  own  merits. 
There  can,  henceforth,  be  little  question  of  their  perpetuity, 
for  the  tide  of  public  opinion  has  recently  turned  in  their  favor 
and  it  will  not  be  easy  to  resist  it.  *  ty\ 

1  Laws  of  1877,  chap.  234;  Laws  of  1881,  chap.  141;  Laws  of  1885, 
chap.  143;  Laws  of  18S7,  chaps.  400  and  408. 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        263 

The  doctrine  of  universal  education,  free  and  open 
alike  to  all  classes,  was  now  generally  accepted  by  the 
people  at  large,  and  continued  to  be  so  accepted  so  long 
as  they  were  "  free  to  act  without  unwelcome  influences 
from  abroad.'* 

From  the  facts  given  in  this  and  the  preceding  chapter 
certain  interesting  conclusions  are  evident.  We  saw  in 
Chapter  XI,  that  the  constitution  of  1868  was  much  in 
advance  of  the  ante-bellum  constitutional  provisions  for 
education,  in  that  it  was  more  mandatory  and  thorough. 
We  also  saw  that  through  the  constitution  and  law  of 
the  Reconstruction  regime  at  least  three  important  edu- 
cational changes  appeared  in  North  Carolina,  as  indeed 
in  all  Southern  States.  These  were  provisions  for  a  gen- 
eral tax  for  educational  purposes,  for  the  education  of 
the  negro,  and  for  a  definitely  prescribed  school  term. 

The  Reconstruction  provision  for  school  support  was, 
in  principle  at  least,  a  decided  improvement  over  the 
ante-bellum  method,  although  the  combination  of  local 
taxation  and  the  annual  income  from  the  literary  fund 
proved  a  creditable  means  of  supporting  schools  and  well 
adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  State  before  the  war. 
The  greatest  merit  of  this  method  was  in  its  service  as 
a  powerful  stimulant  to  local  effort  in  educational  enter- 
prises. The  popularity  and  efficiency  of  the  plan  were 
beyond  question.  Shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
system,  in  1840,  practically  all  the  counties  adopted 
the  plan  and  levied  and  collected  taxes  to  supplement  the 
annual  apportionment  from  the  income  of  the  perma- 
nent educational  endowment.  Moreover,  expenditures 
for  schools  in  1840,  the  first  year  of  the  operation  of  the 
ante-bellum  system,  were  practically  as  large  as  in  1870; 
and,  in  spite  of  the  permissive  and  discretionary  char- 


264    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

acter  of  the  method  used  for  school  support,  more  than 
$100,000  of  local  taxes  was  annually  collected  for  school 
support  in  North  Carolina  during  the  last  years  of  the 
ante-bellum  period.  The  literary  fund  thus  stimulated 
local  initiative,  and  sentiment  in  favor  of  an  increase  in 
taxation  was  rapidly  developing  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war.  With  the  loss  of  this  fund  the  incentive  to  local 
enterprise  and  community  effort  was  practically  de- 
stroyed, and  the  schools  were  forced  to  depend  on  a 
general  tax  which,  during  Reconstruction  and  for  two 
decades  afterward,  proved  both  insufficient  and  uncer- 
tain. Moreover,  local  tax  sentiment,  which  needed  to 
be  revived  and  extended,  for  many  years  proved  difficult 
to  restore. 

The  otherwise  creditable  school  system  in  North 
Carolina  before  the  war  was  defective  in  that  taxation 
for  education  was  not  required  either  by  the  constitu- 
tion or  by  legislation.  But  the  constitution  and  law  of 
Reconstruction  tended  to  correct  this  permissive  and  dis- 
cretionary character  of  the  former  system.  Changes  in 
the  method  of  school  support,  therefore,  were  probably 
the  most  lasting  and  beneficial  of  all  the  contributions 
made  by  the  period,  not  only  to  education  in  the  South, 
but  to  American  education  in  general.  The  general  ef- 
fect of  emancipation  and  the  belief  that  Southern  edu- 
cational ideals  lay  at  the  root  of  the  war  had  a  power- 
ful influence  on  educational  legislation  in  all  sections  of 
the  country.  After  the  war  there  appeared  a  marked 
expansion  of  educational  statutes  in  practically  all  those 
States  which  had  previously  been  satisfied  to  depend  for 
school  support  on  the  income  from  a  permanent  public 
endowment  combined  with  a  small  local  tax  or  a  part 
of  the  capitation  tax  for  school  purposes.  This  custom 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        265 

was  prevalent,  not  only  in  the  South,  but  in  other  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Even  an  advanced  State  like 
New  York  did  not  abandon  the  so-called  "rate  bills" 
for  school  support  until  1867. 

Provisions  for  the  education  of  the  negro  appeared 
naturally  as  a  logical  result  of  emancipation.  The  act  of 
freeing  the  negroes  implied  a  certain  promise  to  edu- 
cate and  to  provide  opportunity  to  fit  them,  as  far  as 
possible,  for  citizenship.  The  changed  political  status 
of  the  negro  also  had  an  effect  in  other  places  as  well  as 
in  the  South;  and  provisions  for  his  education  became  at 
least  nominally  effective  in  all  sections  of  the  country 
alike  and  at  about  the  same  time.  In  the  South  an  un- 
fortunate attitude  was  often  assumed  toward  the  educa- 
tion of  the  negro,  an  attitude  for  which  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau  was  largely  responsible.  This  represents  another 
"part  of  the  heritage  of  evil "  left  by  Reconstruction.  In 
North  Carolina  the  education  of  the  freedmen  was 
viewed  with  cordiality  and  favor  by  the  more  represen- 
tative citizens  of  the  State  and  would  never  have  been 
regarded  otherwise  by  other  classes  but  for  an  unwar- 
ranted outside  interference  and  an  exploitation  of  the 
negro  race  by  men  who  were  both  foreign  in  sympathy 
and  visionary  in  judgment.  Their  indiscreet  criticisms 
of  Southern  life  and  their  failure  to  conciliate  and  to 
enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  influential  leaders  created 
an  unfavorable  condition  for  the  education  of  the  negro 
race,  and  this  condition  persisted  for  many  years  after 
the  South  was  restored  to  home  rule. 

The  other  educational  change  which  appeared  with 
Reconstruction  was  a  definitely  prescribed  school  term, 
but  the  term  prescribed  was  precisely  the  same  as  the  ac- 
tual average  term  before  the  war.  Again  an  ante-bellum 


266    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

educational  practice  of  the  State  was  adopted  by  the 
Reconstruction  regime  and  claimed  as  a  distinct  con- 
tribution Hy  the  latter  period.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  average  school  term  in  North 
Carolina  in  post-bellum  times,  even  as  late  as  1900, 
scarcely  reached  the  average  ante-bellum  term.  Like  the 
"paper"  appropriations  of  the  Reconstruction  regime 
the  prescription  of  a  school  term  proved  ineffective. 

In  other  respects,  also,  the  Reconstruction  period 
suffers  in  comparison  with  ante-bellum  practices  in  North 
Carolina.  The  average  salary  paid  teachers  before  the 
war  was  higher  than  that  paid  during  Reconstruction 
or  until  about  1900;  a  larger  proportion  of  the  school  pop- 
ulation was  enrolled  in  1860  than  in  any  year  between 
1868  and  1876;  and  in  the  administrative  organization 
of  the  school  system,  the  ante-bellum  provisions  for  the 
state,  county,  and  local  supervision,  defective  as  those 
provisions  may  have  been,  were  not  improved  by  the 
law  of  1869.  The  duties  of  the  state  superintendent  and 
of  the  county  and  district  officials  were  as  clearly  defined 
before  1860  as  at  the  later  period;  and  the  administra- 
tion of  these  officials  appeared  more  efficient  under  the 
ante-bellum  system  than  under  that  of  Reconstruction. 
School  statistics,  for  example,  were  more  nearly  com- 
plete in  1860  than  at  any  time  between  1868  and  1876, 
and  this  is  no  mean  test  of  interest  in  public  education 
and  of  the  efficiency  of  its  administration. 

Finally,  however,  Reconstruction  left  other  educa- 
tional legacies  than  those  of  an  advanced  constitutional 
requirement  for  public  education,  and  of  provisions  for 
a  uniform  system  of  taxation  for  school  support,  for  the 
education  of  the  negro,  and  for  a  definitely  prescribed 
school  term.   First  of  all,  the  constitution  itself  was  not 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION         267 

only  ill-suited  to  the  needs  of  the  people,  but  contained 
conflicting  provisions  which  proved  inconvenient  and 
retarding  to  educational  progress.  One  clause  required 
the  maintenance  of  schools  in  every  township  for  four 
months  in  every  year,  while  another  clause  in  the  same 
constitution  made  the  performance  of  this  requirement 
legally  impossible.  For  many  years  after  the  war  the 
valuation  of  property  adopted  throughout  the  State  was 
so  low  that  nearly  all  the  taxes  it  was  possible  to  levy 
were  required  to  carry  on  the  state  and  county  govern- 
ment, leaving  but  a  pittance  for  the  schools.  Under  the 
constitution  it  was  impossible  to  raise  by  taxation  enough 
money  to  maintain  creditable  schools;  and  so  defective 
did  this  part  of  the  school  system  appear,  as  the  years 
went  by,  that  amendments  were  frequently  suggested 
and  urged  by  which  the  constitutional  limitation  of 
taxation  would  not  apply  to  taxes  levied  for  the  support 
of  the  public  schools.  The  State  is  to-day  laboring  under 
the  burden  imposed  by  this  defect  in  the  constitution 
of  1868. 

The  real  educational  benefits  that  did  arise  from  eman- 
cipation and  Reconstruction  were  further  lessened  by 
the  folly  and  offense  committed  by  the  partisan  plan  of 
the  period.  The  infamy  of  radical  rule  during  the  dark 
days  of  Reconstruction,  and  the  incapacity  and  igno- 
rance which  the  negro  displayed  in  his  early  partici- 
pation in  political  affairs,  finally  produced  a  reaction 
damaging  alike  to  the  education  of  the  negro  and  to  that 
of  the  white  child.  The  effect  of  that  period  of  political 
and  financial  license,  when  a  multitude  of  passions  and 
vices  were  riotously  indulged,  was  naturally  blighting  to 
the  enthusiasm  which  native  conservatives  and  former 
leaders  may  have  felt  on  the  subject  of  education.   The 


268    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

influence  of  politics  on  education  during  the  period  was 
direful  and  far-reaching.  Fear  of  mixed  schools  and  the 
poverty-stricken  condition  of  the  State  perhaps  com- 
bined to  produce  an  educational  indifference,  if  not 
outright  hostility,  which  did  not  die  with  the  death  of 
Reconstruction.  But  local  evils  were  intensified  by  the 
agitation  in  Congress  of  the  Civil  Rights  Bill  which 
threatened  temporary  destruction  to  education  in  the 
South  generally,  and  produced  an  influence  as  deadly  as 
it  was  persistent. 

Just  what  would  have  been  the  result  in  North  Caro- 
lina had  there  been  no  outside  interference  is  now,  in  the 
light  of  the  facts,  hardly  a  matter  for  speculation.  On 
the  whole,  the  evidence  indicates  that  had  the  native 
conservative  element  been  free  to  act,  without  unwhole- 
some influences  from  abroad,  better  educational  policies 
would  have  been  outlined  than  were  made  by  the  Re- 
construction regime.  Reference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  noticeable  expansion  of  educational  statutes  and 
the  improvement  of  school  systems  after  1865.  This 
expansion  and  improvement  were  general;  everywhere 
there  appeared  a  popular  feeling  that  educational  facili- 
ties should  be  extended  and  educational  opportunities 
made  more  adequate  and  safe.  This  feeling  was  shared 
by  leaders  in  the  South,  as  well  as  in  other  sections  of  the 
country,  between  the  close  of  the  war  and  the  beginnings 
of  Reconstruction;  and  during  the  confusion  of  these 
years  there  was  a  marked  interest  in  improving  provi- 
sions for  education  in  several  of  the  Southern  States 
which  were  expecting  to  have  their  relations  with  the 
national  government  restored  in  accordance  with  the 
executive  plan  of  Reconstruction. 

In  North  Carolina,  as  we  have  seen,  although  the 


EDUCATION  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION        269 

office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was  abol- 
ished in  1866,  that  action  was  not  due  to  legislative  hos- 
tility, but  to  the  bankrupt  condition  of  the  State  and 
because  there  appeared  no  plan  for  which  this  part  of 
the  system  could  be  continued.  Moreover,  the  same 
Legislature  which  took  this  action  appropriated  money 
to  relieve  the  state  university  and  made  other  efforts  to 
assist  the  public-school  system.  It  will  be  recalled  that 
at  that  time  the  House  actually  passed  a  bill  to  appro- 
priate $75,000  annually  for  that  purpose,  but  the  meas- 
ure was  defeated  in  the  Senate.  It  will  also  be  recalled 
that  at  the  next  Legislature,  at  a  time  of  great  confusion 
and  uncertainty,  when  the  state  governments  of  the 
South  as  organized  by  the  presidential  plan  were  about 
to  be  replaced  with  military  governments,  the  native 
white  citizenship  of  the  State  passed  acts  which  au- 
thorized taxation  for  school  support  and  attempted  to 
revive  and  improve  the  former  school  system.  But  for 
the  crime  of  Reconstruction,  therefore,  the  educational 
historian  would  have  a  different  but  better  tale  to  tell  of 
education  in  North  Carolina  and  the  entire  South  since 
the  Civil  War. 


270    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 


REFERENCES 

Constitutions  of  1868  and  of  1876;  Journals  of  the  House 
and  Senate;  Public  Laws  of  North  Carolina;  Legislative  Docu- 
ments; Reports  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction; 
Fleming,  Documentary  History  of  Reconstruction;  Hamilton, 
Reconstruction  in  North  Carolina;  Hart,  The  Southern  South; 
Dunning,  Reconstruction  Political  and  Economic;  Knight,  The 
Influence  of  Reconstruction  on  Education  in  the  South;  Reports 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  North  Carolina;  Proceedings  of 
the  Peabody  Board  Trustees. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  were  some  of  the  conditions  which  retarded  edu- 
cational growth  in  North  Carolina  between  1868  and 
1876? 

2.  What  conditions  aided  educational  sentiment  during 
those  years? 

3.  What  outside  educational  agencies  operated  in  the  State 
following  the  war? 

4.  Discuss  the  work  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  during  Re- 
construction. 

5.  What  was  the  chief  defect  of  the  State's  educational 
system  during  Reconstruction? 

6.  Show  how  the  defective  legislation  of  the  period  retarded 
education. 

7.  What  was  the  Civil  Rights  Bill?  What  effect  did  it  have 
on  education  in  North  Carolina?  In  other  Southern 
States? 

8.  What  was  done  for  training  teachers  in  the  State  during 
Reconstruction  ? 

9.  What  good  effects  did  the  war  and  Reconstruction  have 
on  education  in  North  Carolina?  In  other  Southern 
States?  In  other  sections  of  the  country? 

10.  What  evils  did  the  period  bring  to  Southern  education 
in  general?  To  education  in  North  Carolina? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  THE 
PEABODY  FUND 

Perhaps  the  most  wholesome  and  beneficial  influence 
affecting  education  in  all  the  Southern  States,  especially 
during  the  dark  days  which  followed  the  war,  came 
through  the  work  of  the  Peabody  Fund.  This  endow- 
ment was  created  in  1867  by  George  Peabody,  a  native 
of  Massachusetts,  who  spent  the  last  thirty  years  of  his 
life  in  London.  There  he  accumulated  a  vast  fortune, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  war  he  became  especially  inter- 
ested in  the  encouragement  of  education  in  the  destitute 
Southern  States.  Accordingly,  in  February,  1867,  he 
created  a  trust  fund  of  $1,000,000,  to  which  in  July, 
1869,  he  added  another  million,  to  encourage  and  assist 
educational  effort  in  "  those  portions  of  our  beloved  and 
common  country  which  have  suffered  from  the  destruc- 
tive ravages,  and  not  less  disastrous  consequences,  of 
civil  war."  These  two  millions  constituted  the  bulk 
of  the  productive  capital.  Nearly  a  million  and  a  half 
in  Mississippi  and  Florida  bonds  proved  unproductive, 
being  among  securities  which  those  States  repudiated. 
As  a  result  Mississippi  and  Florida  were  omitted  in  the 
distribution  of  the  income  from  the  Peabody  Fund,  from 
1886  to  1892,  at  which  latter  date,  on  motion  of  ex- 
President  Hayes,  and  by  unanimous  vote  of  the  trustees 
the  two  States  were  reinstated  as  beneficiaries. 

Mr.  Peabody  named  as  trustees  of  this  fund  sixteen 
men  of  prominence  and  distinction :  Robert  C.  Winthrop, 


272    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

of  Massachusetts;  Hamilton  Fish,  of  New  York;  Bishop 
Charles  P.  Mcllwaine,  of  Ohio;  General  Ulysses  S. 
Grant,  of  the  United  States  Army;  Admiral  D.  G.  Far- 
ragut,  of  the  United  States  Navy;  William  C.  Rives,  of 
Virginia;  John  H.  Clifford,  of  Massachusetts;  William 
Aiken,  of  South  Carolina;  William  M.  Evarts,  of  New 
York;  William  A.  Graham,  of  North  Carolina;  Charles 
Macalester,  of  Pennsylvania;  George  W.  Riggs,  of 
Washington;  Samuel  Wetmore,  of  New  York;  Edward 
A.  Bradford,  of  Louisiana;  George  N.  Eaton,  of  Mary- 
land; and  George  Peabody  Russell,  of  Massachusetts. 
In  his  letter,  dated  at  Washington,  February  7,  1867, 
creating  the  trust,  he  said:  — 

I  feel  most  deeply,  therefore,  that  it  is  the  duty  and  privi- 
lege of  the  most  favored  and  wealthy  portions  of  our  nation 
to  assist  those  who  are  less  fortunate;  and  with  the  wish  to  dis- 
charge, so  far  as  I  am  able,  my  own  responsibility  in  this  mat- 
ter, as  well  as  to  gratify  my  desire  to  aid  those  to  whom  I  am 
bound  by  so  many  ties  of  attachment  and  regard,  I  give  to 
you,  gentlemen,  most  of  whom  have  been  my  personal  and 
especial  friends,  the  sum  of  one  million  of  dollars,  to  be  by 
you  and  your  successors  held  in  trust  and  the  income  thereof 
used  and  applied  in  your  discretion  for  the  promotion  and 
encouragement  of  intellectual,  moral,  or  industrial  education 
among  the  young  of  the  more  destitute  portions  of  the  South- 
ern and  Southwestern  States  of  our  Union;  my  purpose  be- 
ing, that  the  benefits  intended  shall  be  distributed  among  the 
entire  population,  without  other  distinction  than  their  needs 
and  the  opportunities  of  usefulness  to  them. 

The  following  resolutions,  adopted  March  19,  1867, 
embody  the  plan  of  the  trustees :  — 

1.  Resolved,  That  for  the  present  the  promotion  of  primary 
or  common-school  education,  by  such  means  or  agencies  as  now 
exist,  or  may  need  to  be  created,  be  the  leading  object  of  the 
Board  in  the  use  of  the  fund  placed  at  its  disposal. 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND    273 

2.  Resolved,  That  in  aid  of  the  above  general  design,  and 
as  promotive  of  the  same,  the  Board  will  have  in  view  the 
furtherance  of  the  normal  school  education  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers,  as  well  by  the  endowment  of  scholarships  in 
existing  Southern  institutions  as  by  the  establishing  of  nor- 
mal schools,  and  the  aiding  of  such  normal  schools  as  may  now 
be  in  operation  in  the  Southern  and  Southwestern  States;  in- 
cluding such  measures  as  may  be  feasible,  and  as  experience 
shall  dictate  to  be  expedient,  for  the  promotion  of  education 
in  the  application  of  science  to  the  industrial  pursuits  of  hu- 
man life. 

A  third  resolution,  provided  for  the  appointment  of  a 
general  agent,  "of  the  highest  qualifications,"  to  whom 
was  to  be  committed,  with  the  advice  of  an  executive 
committee,  the  entire  charge  of  carrying  out  Mr.  Pea- 
body^  designs.  Under  this  resolution,  Rev.  Dr.  Barnas 
Sears,  president  of  Brown  University,  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  was  offered  the  appointment  which  he 
accepted  March  30,  1867.  It  may  well  be  questioned 
whether  any  other  man  could  have  brought  more  valu- 
able training  and  experience  and  greater  adaptability 
and  resourcefulness  to  the  delicate  and  difficult  duties 
of  the  position.  He  soon  fixed  his  residence  in  Staunton, 
Virginia,  so  as  to  be  in  close  communication  with  the 
region  for  which  he  labored  so  wisely  and  so  ably  for 
thirteen  years.1  < 

The  directions  of  Mr.  Peabody  were  that  the  principal 
of  the  fund  should  remain  intact  for  thirty  years.  It 
could  not  be  expended,  neither  could  it  be  increased  by 
accruing  interest;  but  the  method  of  using  the  annual 
revenue,  as  well  as  the  final  disposition  of  the  original 
endowment,  was  left  entirely  to  the  discretion  of  the 
trustees.    The  solution  of  this  latter  question  was,  by 

1  Dr.  Scars  died  July  6,  1880,  at  Saratoga,  New  York. 


274    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

common  consent,  left  to  future  developments  and  the 
ripe  wisdom  of  the  self-perpetuating  board  of  trustees. 
The  immediate  need  was  obviously  in  the  field  of  ele- 
mentary instruction  for  the  masses  of  Southern  youth, 
and  the  Board  early  determined  to  give  assistance  to 
public  free  schools.  The  policy  of  the  trustees  was  to 
cooperate,  whenever  possible,  with  state  authorities,  so 
as  to  prevent  disorder  and  to  secure  unity  and  strength 
of  action.  The  funds  were  not  to  be  distributed  as  a 
charity  to  the  indigent;  this  had  been  a  more  or  less 
prevalent  ante-bellum  educational  practice  in  several  of 
the  Southern  States,  proving  inadequate  to  any  effec- 
tual relief,  wasteful  and  inefficient,  and  productive  of  no 
permanent  and  valuable  results.  Moreover,  the  funds 
were  not  to  be  appropriated  according  to  population  or 
according  to  comparative  community  destitution,  but 
on  the  sound  principle  of  helping  those  communities 
which  would  help  themselves.  The  invariable  adherence 
of  the  Peabody  Trustees  to  this  principle,  throughout 
the  operation  of  the  fund,  was  probably  the  greatest 
single  educational  blessing  the  South  ever  enjoyed. 

The  plan  formulated  for  the  promotion  of  educational 
enterprise  was  designed  from  the  outset  to  stimulate  and 
encourage  local  initiative  and  community  effort.  All 
schools  aided  by  the  fund  were  to  have  at  least  one 
hundred  pupils  each,  with  a  teacher  for  every  fifty,  and 
an  average  term  of  ten  months.  The  sum  of  $300  was 
usually  given  to  a  school  with  an  enrollment  of  one 
hundred,  $600  to  one  haying  an  enrollment  of  two  hun- 
dred, and  $1000  to  one  having  as  many  as  three  hundred 
pupils  enrolled.  A  card  similar  to  the  following  was  fre- 
quently distributed  in  order  to  acquaint  the  people  with 
the  plan  and  method  of  the  trustees:  — 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND    275 

For  well-regulated  public  free  schools,  containing  ten  months 
of  the  year,  and  having  an  enrollment  of  not  less  than 

100  pupils,  averaging  85  per  cent  attendance,  the  Peabody  Board  pays  $  800 
150        "  "         85     "      "  "  "  "  "  "    $  450 

200        "  "         85    "      "  "  "  9  600 

250       "  "         85    "       "  "  "  "  "         "    $  800 

300  85    "      "  "  "  "  "         "    $1000 

The  schools  are  expected  to  pay  for  current  expenses  two 
or  three  times  as  much  as  the  Peabody  Board  appropriates,  to 
be  graded,  and  to  have  a  teacher  for  every  fifty  pupils. 

As  a  rule  colored  schools  received  two  thirds  of  the 
above  amounts.  These  amounts  were  always  given  on 
the  condition  that  the  town  or  community  receiving 
the  aid  should  raise  by  subscription  or  otherwise  at  least 
twice  or  three  times  as  much  as  the  Peabody  Board  ap- 
propriated to  it.  Moreover,  an  average  standard  attend- 
ance was  required  as  a  further  qualification  for  partici- 
pation in  the  bounty.  The  soundness  of  this  principle 
of  distribution  is  only  one  of  the  creditable  features  of  the 
organization  of  the  fund.  In  addition  to  confining  its  at- 
tention to  public  free  schools,  the  fund  was  thoroughly 
committed  to  the  following  principles  in  promoting  edu- 
cational endeavor:  — 

1.  Rendering  aid  to  schools  where  large  numbers  of  children 
could  be  gathered  and  where  a  model  system  of  schools  could 
be  organized  and  maintained. 

2.  Giving  preference  to  those  places  which  showed  promise 
of  influencing  the  surrounding  community. 

3.  Making  a  limited  number  of  schools  effective  rather 
than  undertaking  the  "multiplication  of  schools  languishing 
for  want  of  sufficient  support."  /^ ;"  ***  ^^  &c' 

4.  Working  for  an  improvement  of  state  systems  of  educa- 
tion, —  "  to  act  through  their  organs,  and  to  make  use  of  their 
machinery  whenever"  such  agencies  were  offered. 

5.  Favoring  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  normal 
schools  over  normal  departments  in  colleges  and  academies. 


276    THE.  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

!  6.  Giving  special  attention  to  the  preparation  of  female 
teachers  for  primary  schools,  "rather  than  to  general  culture 
of  young  men  in  colleges,  who  will  be  likely  to  teach  in  the 
higher  schools  for  the  benefit  of  the  few." 

7.  Encouraging  colored  students  who  were  preparing  to 
teach  to  attend  regular  normal  schools. 

8.  Favoring  the  support  of  state  supervision,  the  formula- 
tion of  state  teachers'  associations,  and  the  publication  of  edu- 
cational periodicals. 

The  policy  of  the  fund  and  its  administration  was 
thus  outlined.  "  Free  schools  for  the  whole  people  "  be- 
came its  motto  and  aim.  And  the  conditions  on  which 
every  appropriation  was  to  be  made  were  just  those 
needed  to  secure  cooperation  with  and  security  for  the 
plan.  No  other  method  could  have  created  or  assisted 
in  creating  a  wholesome  educational  sentiment  or  could 
have  had  the  effect  of  encouraging  local  taxation  for 
public  schools.  The  absence  of  any  element  of  charity 
in  the  plan  of  distribution,  as  a  means  to  temporary  re- 
lief, is  a  living  witness  to  the  judgment  which  marked 
the  entire  administration  of  the  trust. 

The  States  aided  by  the  fund  were  those  which  be- 
longed to  the  Confederacy  and  West  Virginia.  North 
Carolina  was  one  of  the  first  to  participate  in  the  dis- 
tribution. Only  a  few  months  after  the  creation  of  the 
trust,  arrangements  were  nearly  completed  for  aiding  a 
school  in  Salisbury  to  the  amount  of  $500;  and  at  the 
same  time  efforts  were  made  to  secure  an  appropriation 
for  Hillsboro.  More  work  would  have  been  under- 
taken that  year  but  for  the  absence  from  the  State  of 
William  A.  Graham,  the  North  Carolina  trustee,  who 
was  very  familiar  with  the  State's  educational  needs, 
and  for  whose  personal  influence  there  was  probably  no 
substitute.    The  amounts  received  by  the  towns  and 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND    277 

communities  of  the  State  gradually  increased  so  that  by 
1877  the  sum  of  $87,600  had  been  appropriated  to  them 
from  the  Peabody  Board.  During  the  same  time  Vir- 
ginia received  $201,250;  West  Virginia,  $107,710; 
Georgia,  $71,  062;  Arkansas,  $60,600;  Mississippi,  $58,- 
578;  Louisiana,  $55,850;  Alabama,  $55,450;  Tennessee, 
$191,650;  Florida,  $48,450;  South  Carolina,  $27,650; 
Texas,  $18,600;  making  a  total  of  $984,450. 

The  sum  of  $22,000  was  available  for  the  State  of 
North  Carolina  in  1868.  But  on  the  advice  of  Calvin 
H.  Wiley,  former  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
Mr.  Sears  visited  only  the  larger  towns,  where  arrange- 
ments to  comply  with  the  conditions  of  the  Peabody 
appropriations  were  completed.  Applications  for  aid 
also  came  from  private  academies  and  colleges  in  the 
western  part  of  the  State,  seeking  endowment,  but  these 
could  not  be  considered.  Wilmington  was  offered  $1500 
on  condition  that  it  would  raise  $3000;  Newbern  was 
promised  $1000  if  its  citizens  would  raise  $2500;  and 
Raleigh  and  Charlotte  were  to  receive  $1000  each  on  the 
same  condition.  Offers  were  similarly  made  to  Golds- 
boro,  Greensboro,  and  Fayetteville.  Through  F.  A. 
Fiske,  superintendent  of  education  for  the  colored 
people  of  the  State,  Mr.  Sears  learned  that  the  colored 
schools  were  "in  a  precarious,  staggering  condition  on 
account  of  extreme  poverty.  .  .  ."  and  the  sum  of 
$4000  was  offered,  on  the  usual  conditions,  to  aid  these 
schools.  The  sum  of  $500  was  also  given  to  aid  a  colored 
normal  school  in  Raleigh. 

In  addition  to  these  money  appropriations,  a  few 
textbooks  were  distributed  in  the  State  in  1868.  These 
were  elementary  texts,  gifts  of  the  A.  S.  Barnes  Pub- 
lishing Company,  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  Cowper- 


278    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

thwait  and  Company,  and  Sheldon  and  Company. 
More  than  fifty  thousand  copies  of  these  books  were 
distributed  in  the  South  from  September,  1869,  to 
September,  1870.  Some  of  the  books  given  by  these 
publishing  houses  were:  Webster's  Elementary  Speller 
(25,000  copies);  Webster's  Elementary  Reader  (25,000 
copies);  Cornell's  First  Steps  in  Geography  (25,000 
copies);  Quackenbos's  Primary  Arithmetic  (20,000 
copies);  Quackenbos's  First  Book  in  Grammar  (5000 
copies);  Page's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  (500 
copies) ;  Welch's  Manual  of  Object  Lessons  (500  copies) ; 
Davies's  Outlines  of  Mathematical  Science  (500  copies) ; 
Holbrook's  Normal  Methods  of  Teaching  (250  copies); 
Wells's  Graded  Schools  (250  copies);  Jewell's  School 
Government  (250  copies);  Fowle's  Teacher's  Institute 
(250  copies);  Bates's  Methods  of  Teacher's  Institute 
(250  copies);  Mansfield's  American  Education  (250 
copies);  Mayhew's  Universal  Education  (250  copies); 
Northend's  Teacher's  Assistant  (250  copies)  ;.Northend's 
Teachers  and  Parents  (250  copies) ;  Root's  School  Amuse- 
ments  (250  copies);  Stone's  Teacher's  Examiner  (250 
copies);  National  Second  Reader  (5000  copies);  Davies's 
Written  Arithmetic  (5000  copies);  Monteith's  Second 
Book  in  Geography  (5000  copies);  Beer's  Penmanship 
(5000  copies) ;  Monteith's  United  States  History  (3000 
copies) ;  A  First  Book  of  Science  (500  copies) ;  Jarvis's 
Physiology  and  Health  (500  copies);  Peck's  Ganot's 
Natural  Philosophy  (500  copies);  Smith  and  Martin's 
Bookkeeping  (500  copies). 

Only  $2700  of  appropriations  from  the  fund  seems  to 
have  reached  the  State  in  1868.  Considerable  more  than 
this  had  been  available,  but  it  was  hardly  an  opportune 
time  for  educational  enterprise.   The  popular  mind  was 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND    279 

agitated  over  the  ratification  of  the  new  constitution  in 
April,  the  call  for  a  special  session  of  the  Legislature 
in  July,  and  the  approach  of  the  regular  session  of  that 
body  in  the  autumn.  Few  of  the  offers  previously  made 
to  towns  and  cities  had  been  formally  complied  with, 
and  Mr.  Sears  did  not  visit  the  State  between  July,  1868, 
and  the  following  January.  But  he  arranged  with  the 
Reverend  H.  C.  Vogell,  government  superintendent  of 
colored  schools  in  the  State,  to  select,  superintend,  and 
aid  from  the  Peabody  Fund  such  colored  schools  as 
would  "otherwise  have  failed  wholly  or  in  part." A   [ ^c,^* s 

By  April,  1869,  a  new  school  law  had  been  passed  /«~/v*« 
providing  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of    ''fiL<*/ 
schools  for  the  education  of  all  the  children  of  the  State.  ^*"' 
In  August  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  be-    /  hir  /r^ 
lieved  that  some  of  the  schools  would  be  opened  by 
October  and  many  of  them  by  January,  1870.    State 
funds  for  educational  purposes,  amounting  to  about 
$300,000,  would  be  available  and  would  afford  accom- 
modations for  about  75,000  children.    The  Peabody 
Board  could  now  act  as  a  great  stimulant  in  inducing 
cities  and  towns  to  furnish  funds  supplementary  to  the 
aid  appropriated  by  Mr.  Sears,  which  in  1869  amounted 
to  $6350. 

Wilmington  was  maintaining  free  schools  by  volun- 
tary subscriptions  amounting  to  $7500  and  $1500  re- 
ceived from  the  Peabody  Board.  Newbern  had  failed  to  //^'^ 
comply  with  the  offer  made  by  the  Board  in  1868  and  ft*** 
was  providing  for  only  half  of  its  white  children;  but  on 
urgent  request  of  the  city  council,  the  original  offer  was 
renewed  on  condition  that  provision  be  made  for  the  ed-j/,,» m  +  if 
ucation  of  all  the  white  children  there.    Later  the  New-  A/rffc 
bcrn  Academy  was  opened  as  a  public  school  to  which 


280  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

all  the  white  children  of  the  town  were  admitted.  The 
sum  of  $300  was  given  to  Newport  on  the  usual  condi- 
tions, and  the  same  amount  offered  to  a  charity  school  in 
Charlotte  on  condition  that  it  be  converted  into  a  pub- 
lic school.  Little  River  Academy  received  $300.  This 
school  had  been  made  free  in  all  the  common  English 
subjects,  had  helped  to  break  down  the  "barriers  of 
caste,"  and  had  assisted  in  uniting  the  entire  community 
educationally.  Smithville  received  $300,  Hillsboro  $500, 
and  $300  was  offered  to  Thomasville.  The  school  in 
Salisbury  had  suspended,  and  Raleigh  and  some  other 
towns,  to  which  offers  of  aid  had  been  previously  made, 
had  been  unsuccessful  in  their  efforts  to  comply  with  the 
conditions.  In  most  of  these  cases  Mr.  Sears  renewed  his 
offers. 

The  public-school  system  established  by  the  Legis- 
lature in  1868-69  had  struggled  through  its  first  year 
with  as  much  success  as  was  expected  in  times  of  such 
violent  party  strife.  Both  coldness  and  opposition  had 
confronted  it.  Moreover,  taxes  had  been  only  imper- 
fectly collected,  the  schools,  therefore,  poorly  supported, 
and  there  was  a  lack  of  general  educational  interest,  of 
competent  teachers,  and  of  competent  officials.  The 
{  I  school  populationjof  1870  was  about_344,Q00.  and  the 
***  total  enrollment  was  slightly  in  excess  of  50,000.    But 

j*klo.pt\  there  was  an  encouraging  growth  of  educational  senti- 
ment in  towns  and  communities  which  were  being  stimu- 
lated to  local  effort  by  the  Peabody  Board.  Wilmington 
assumed  control  and  support  of  its  schools,  which  had 
previously  been  maintained  by  private  contribution, 
the  city  adopting  them  and  making  appropriations  to 
their  support,  and  the  Peabody  Board  continuing  its 
aid  of  $1000.   Newbern  was  this  year  (1870)  receiving 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND    281 

$300  from  the  fund.  Fayetteville  was  promised  $1000; 
the  sum  of  $600  was  appropriated  to  Washington  to 
assist  a  white  school  and  a  colored  school;  Hillsboro 
received  $500,  Oak  Ridge  $150,  and  a  colored  school  in 
Charlotte  $200.  In  addition  to  these  the  following  places 
had  fulfilled  the  conditions  which  were  attached  to  the 
Peabody  appropriations  and  in  1870  received  $300  each : 
Cottage  Home,  Gilmer's  Store,  Hayesville,  Jamestown, 
Kenansville,  Mars  Hill  College,  Mount  Gilead,  Grassy 
Creek,  Durham's  Creek,  Newport,  Polletier's  Mill,  Roan 
Mountain,  Smithville,  Springfield  and  Thomasville. 

The  following  year  did  not  see  very  many  encourag- 
ing signs  of  educational  growth  in  North  Carolina,  and 
the  public  mind,  in  the  matter  of  free  schools,  was  not 
so  well  settled  there  as  in  most  of  the  other  Southern 
States.  The  supreme  court  had  decided  that  the  school 
law,  so  far  as  it  provided  for  local  school  taxes,  wasjnx- 
constitutional  and  could  not  be  enforced;  the  Legislature 
levied  no  school  taxes  ^or  1871,  and  the  county  com- 
missioners were  in  many  cases  accused  of  using  the  capi- 
tation taxes  for  other  than  educational  purposes.  The 
general  aspect  of  education  was  undergoing  but  few 
changes.  The  principle  of  general  education  by  public 
support  had  been  agreed  upon  as  the  correct  principle; 
but  its  application,  in  North  Carolina  at  least,  proved 
a  more  difficult  task.  Educational  legislation,  though 
well  intended,  had  been  hurriedly  framed  by  lawmakers 
of  little  experience;  local  tax  legislation  was  vague  and 
uncertain,  and  litigation  was  resorted  to  by  those  who 
were  opposed  to  it;  officials  seemed  to  have  but  little 
interest  in  the  schools,  many  of  which  languished  for 
want  of  proper  administration. 

These  were  some  of  the  conditions  which  Mr.  Sears 


282    THEJPUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

faced  in  his  work  in  North  Carolina  in  1871.  But  he  con- 
tinued his  labors  there  discreetly  and  with  caution.  He 
assisted  Wilmington  and  Newbern  again  with  $1000 
each.  In  Newbern  he  found  that  opposition  was  being 
rapidly  overcome  and  that  the  "partisan  private 
schools"  there  had  "been  compelled  to  succumb  to  the 
generous  provisions  we  have  been  enabled  to  make  for 
all "  those  who  take  advantage  of  them.  About  400  pu- 
pils were  being  educated  in  Wilmington  and  over  300 
in. Newbern.  Washington  had  a  white  school  with  132 
pupils  and  a  colored  school  with  451,  and  Mr.  Sears  gave 
$300  to  the  former  and  $600  to  the  latter.  Durham's 
Creek,  with  an  enrollment  of  142,  received  $300;  Beau- 
fort, with  a  school  of  150  white  pupils,  was  promised 
$450  if  it  continued  ten  months,  and  $400  for  its  colored 
school  with  200  pupils  on  the  same  condition.  Smith- 
ville  received  $450  for  its  white  school  of  170  pupils  and 
three  teachers,  and  $200  for  its  colored  school  of  100 
pupils  and  two  teachers.  It  was  said  that  a  hundred  chil- 
dren were  being  taught  in  these  two  places  to  read  and 
write,  "who,  but  for  these  schools,  never  would  have 
known  a  letter."  Other  towns  and  communities  aided 
this  year  were:  Hillsboro,  $500;  Newport,  $450;  Kenans- 
ville,  Grassy  Creek,  Carthage,  Edneyville,  Township 
No.  9,  Mars  Hill  College,  Mount  Olive,  Westfield,  Sandy 
Mush,  Blue  Ridge,  Chocowinity,  Cane  Creek,  and  Bush 
Hill,  $300  each.  A  negro  school  at  Kinston  received  $300, 
one  at  Plymouth  $200,  and  one  at  Charlotte  $200. 
Eighteen  other  schools,  three  of  which  were  for  negroes, 
received  amounts  ranging  from  $200  to  $500;  and  the 
sum  of  $1000  was  offered  to  aid  teachers'  institutes. 

For  the  next  year,  ending  July,  1873,  the  general 
agent  did  not  report  educational  conditions  in  the  State 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND  283 

any  more  promising  than  hitherto.  Indifference  among 
the  common  people  and  a  lack  of  cooperation  among 
public  men  were  everywhere  noticeable.  "Nowhere," 
said  Mr.  Sears,  "has  it  been  more  clearly  demonstrated 
that  half-measures  in  establishing  and  supporting  public 
schools  cannot  be  attended  with  great  success."  It  was 
feared  that  in  many,  if  not  in  most,  of  the  counties  no 
schools  would  open  in  the  fall;  systematic  and  energetic 
efforts  were  needed  to  enlighten  the  people  so  that  they 
would  demand  of  the  Legislature  a  working  system  of 
schools.  The  popular  mind  was  confused  and  discon- 
certed by  the  agitation  in  Congress  of  the  famous  Civil 
Rights  Bill,  which  Charles  Sumner  labored  to  enact  in 
1871-72.  No  legislation  in  favor  of  mixed  schools  had 
ever  been  attempted  in  North  Carolina,  and  public 
opinion  there  was  unanimously  hostile  to  it. 

Only  in  cities  and  towns,  and  largely  in  those  which 
were  being  aided  by  the  Peabody  Board,  were  any  seri- 
ous efforts  being  made  to  maintain  free  public  schools 
during  these  stormy  days.  The  wisdom  of  the  original 
policy  of  the  trustees  was  confirmed  by  their  action  in 
the  face  of  the  discouraging  circumstances  of  the  time. 
They  early  saw  the  necessity  of  giving  "preference  to 
places  which  will,  by  their  example,  exert  the  widest 
influence  upon  the  surrounding  country.,,  Any  other 
method  would  have  been  wasteful,  inefficient,  and  prob- 
ably injurious;  an  unwise  distribution  of  their  funds 
could  easily  have  demoralized  the  very  region  whose 
common  sense  and  practical  effort  needed  to  be  aroused 
in  favor  of  education.  But  the  concentration  of  assist- 
ance on  a  few  strategic  educational  points,  which  were 
sustained  by  an  intelligent  and  wholesome  public  senti- 
ment, served  to  conciliate  opposition  when  men  were 


284    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

violent  in  the  bitter  expression  of  their  disgust  and  rest- 
lessness, to  enlist  community  cooperation  when  all 
sense  of  personal  responsibility  was  deadened,  and  to 
encourage  when  apprehension  verged  on  despair.  The 
wisdom  of  the  plan,  adhered  to  so  strictly,  yet  so  dis- 
creetly and  with  such  astonishing  success,  was  early  con- 
firmed in  many  communities,  and  has  had  its  triumphant 
vindication  in  the  subsequent  movement  in  the  South 
for  local  taxation  for  school  purposes. 

Wilmington  furnished  an  early  example  of  the  influence 
of  the  policy  in  North  Carolina.  In  the  winter  of  1873 
the  town  became  responsible  for  its  schools,  and  the 
authorities  levied  a  local  tax  to  supplement  the  county 
and  state  school  taxes,  to  make  more  adequate  provision 
for  its  children  who  now  numbered  nearly  1000.  "We 
flatter  ourselves,"  wrote  the  chairman  of  the  local  school 
committee,  "that  the  start  now  taken  in  Wilmington 
will,  in  time,  extend  to  every  part  of  the  State."  From 
June,  1872,  to  July,  1873,  Wilmington  and  Newbern 
received  $1000  each.  Washington  received  $600, 
Hillsboro  $500,  and  some  of  the  other  places  aided  this 
year  were :  Hayesville,  Catawba  Vale,  and  Waynesville, 
$450  each;  Portsmouth,  Leicester  No.  1,  Leicester  No.  2, 
Lebanon,  Hendersonville,  Hunting  Quarter,  Charlotte, 
Linville,  Walnut  Creek,  Grassy  Creek,  Old  Fort  Town- 
ship, Dysartville,  Otter  Creek,  Big  Laurel,  Sulphur 
Springs,  Hominy  Valley,  Bridge  Water,  Belmont, 
Democrat,  Locust  Field,  Morgan  Hill,  Qualla  Town, 
Newport,  $300  each;  a  negro  school  at  Warrenton  re- 
ceived $400,  one  at  Fayetteville  $300,  and  one  at  Oxford 
$300.  The  sum  of  $300  was  appropriated  to  aid  six 
teachers'  institutes. 

The  noble  design  of  the  great  philanthropist  was  being 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND     285 

followed  with  fidelity  and  jealous  care.  In  the  work  of 
the  school  year  ending  June,  1874,  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  noticed  an  improvement  in  both 
pupils  and  teachers,  and  consequently  increased  interest 
in  public  education;  and  the  influence  of  the  Peabody 
Board  received  credit  from  that  officer  for  this  change. 
The  school  law  was  still  defective,  however,  in  that  it 
failed  to  provide  for  the  education  and  training  of  teach- 
ers and  for  efficient  county  and  district  supervision,  and 
no  authority  for  local  taxation.  The  superintendent 
declared :  — 

The  people  are  not  deficient  in  energy  or  public  spirit,  or 
in  a  due  appreciation  of  popular  education.  Our  great  want 
is  statesmen  in  our  legislative  halls  —  laws  that  will  permit 
the  people  to  establish  and  maintain  public  schools  for  the 
education  of  their  children.  The  want  of  active  county  super- 
vision has  been  very  greatly  felt  in  administering  the  Pea- 
body  Education  Fund. 

Mr.  Sears,  however,  felt  more  hopeful  for  the  future. 
He  was  now  convinced  that  "nothing  in  the  future  is 
more  certain  than  the  acceptance  of  that  principle,  the 
doctrine  of  free  schools  by  the  people  at  large,  if  they  are 
free  to  act  without  unwelcome  influences  from  abroad." 
And  to  hasten  such  a  time  he  distributed  in  1874  more 
than  $12,000  to  thirty  different  schools,  thus  stimulating 
interest  in  educational  development.  Wilmington  re- 
ceived $2000,  Newbern  received  $1000,  and  Charlotte 
received  $1050.  Among  the  other  places  aided  were: 
Franklin  and  South  Hominy,  $450  each;  Mill  Shoal,  Flat 
Creek,  Table  Rock,  Dick's  Creek,  Clear  Creek,  Enon, 
Warrenton,  Thomasville,  Asheville,  Hayesville,  Dysart- 
ville,  Rice  Hill,  Beaufort,  Washington,  Morgan  Hill, 
Marshall,  Pigeon  Valley,  Buffalo,  Montanis  Institute, 
and  Bethlehem,  $300  each;  Smyrna,  $200;  a  negro  school 


286    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

at  Beaufort  and  one  at  Tarboro,  $300  each;  one  at 
Fayetteville,  $50;  and  the  sum  of  $100  was  given  to 
teachers*  institutes. 

By  1875,  the  schools  aided  by  the  Peabody  Board 
were  numerous  in  the  State  and  the  appropriations  were 
larger  than  for  any  other  year.  Interest  in  public  educa- 
tion was  gradually  increasing,  though  the  State  was  not 
yet  making  equal  educational  progress  with  Virginia. 
The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was  spending 
four  months  of  the  year  as  local  agent  of  the  Peabody 
Board,  visiting  various  places  in  the  State,  setting  the 
subject  of  public  school  properly  before  them.  The 
towns  and  communities  receiving  appropriations  this 
year  were:  Charlotte  and  Newbern,  $1000  each;  Laurel 
Branch,  Balsam  Seminary,  Pleasant  Hill,  Rocky  Hill, 
Ivy  Shoal,  Flat  Creek,  Grantville  Seminary,  Web- 
ster School,  Cowee  School,  Fleming's  Chapel,  Shoal 
Creek  Seminary,  Roan  Mountain,  Pisgah,  Smyrna, 
Smithfield,  McElrath  Chapel,  Waynesville,  Mill  Shoal, 
New  Salem  Church,  Laurel  Hill  (White  Rock),  Antioch 
School,  Rocky  Point,  Grassy  Creek,  Ream's  Creek, 
Nebo  Creek,  Dick's  Creek,  Fork  Mount,  Hicksville, 
Oak  Grove,  Harrol  Township,  Laurel  Fork,  Lewisburg 
Township,  Capernaum  Institute,  River  Bend,  Blue 
Ridge,  Washington  School,  Laurel  Hill  (Clay  County), 
Cheoah,  and  Warrenton,  $300  each;  Hillsboro,  $250; 
Journal  of  Education,  $200;  a  negro  school  at  Charlotte, 
$600;  one  at  Fayetteville  and  one  at  Tarboro,  $450  each; 
and  $500  was  appropriated  for  the  North  Carolina  agency. 

The  successful  operation  of  such  schools  and  the  free 
discussion  of  education  soon  led  to  the  conviction  that 
public  schools  were  a  necessity.  In  general,  however,  no 
great  changes  in  public  sentiment  appeared  in  August, 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND  287 

1876,  though  steady  progress  in  that  direction  was  seen 
in  spite  of  new  obstacles.  The  state  superintendent  was 
charged  with  irregularities  in  the  management  of  funds 
and  resigned,  and  a  successor  was  tardily  named  in  his 
place.  The  state  tax  for  schools  was  slight.  A  local  tax 
was  hardly  known,  and  the  policy  of  appointing  politi- 
cians to  head  the  educational  system  had  revealed  its 
extreme  weakness  and  danger.  The  general  financial 
embarrassment,  common  to  all  the  Southern  States,  and 
the  maladministration  in  the  handling  of  school  funds 
added  to  an  already  discouraging  condition.  Educa- 
tional legislation,  prepared  hastily  by  those  who  had  no 
experience  to  guide  them,  was  commonly  defective. 
Offices  had  been  needlessly  multiplied  and  unwisely  dis- 
tributed, and  the  school  system  burdened  with  super- 
numeraries; responsibilities  were  divided,  and  chances 
of  active  official  cooperation  were  greatly  decreased. 
The  unwarranted  outside  interference  in  educational 
matters  which  Mr.  Sears  viewed  with  apprehension 
complicated  an  already  anomalous  condition;  but  the 
work  of  Mr.  Sears  and  his  Board,  and  the  sight  of  success 
in  the  schools  aided  from  that  source,  helped  to  keep 
alive  a  certain  educational  spirit.  And  appropriations 
continued  to  be  made. 

From  October,  1875,  to  the  summer  of  1876,  the  fol- 
lowing towns  and  communities  were  aided :  Wilmington 
(for  two  years),  $2000;  Newbern,  $1000;  Warrenton 
and  Greensboro,  $750  each;  Smithfield,  Smyrna,  Dy- 
sartville,  Nebo,  Hillsboro,  $300  each;  a  negro  school  at 
Fayetteville,  and  one  at  Charlotte,  $450  each;  a  negro 
school  at  Tarboro  and  one  at  Raleigh,  $300  each;  the 
agency  for  North  Carolina,  $500;  the  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, $200;  and  teachers'  institutes,  $100. 


288    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  return  to  "home  rule"  was  made  in  North 
Carolina  in  1876,  when  the  conservatives  regained  the 
state  government.  The  new  constitution  was  adopted 
January  1,  1877,  and  the  liability  of  having  mixed 
schools,  which  had  been  a  matter  of  great  consideration, 
was  now  removed.  Forward  educational  steps  are  at 
once  in  evidence.  One  of  the  evidences  of  the  change  is 
the  immediate  provision  for  two  normal  schools,  one 
for  each  race,  and  for  their  equal  support  from  the  State. 
A  crying  need  of  the  years  of  Reconstruction  was  for 
competent  teachers,  and  the  only  safe,  thorough, 
efficient,  and  permanent  policy  was  state  establishment 
and  support  of  normal  schools.  The  Legislature 
appropriated  $2000  to  each  of  these  institutions.  Au- 
thority was  also  granted  towns  of  a  certain  size  to  levy 
an  extra  property  tax  for  schools  of  as  much  as  one 
tenth  of  one  per  cent  and  a  capitation  tax  of  twenty- 
five  cents  for  educational  purposes  was  continued.  Mr. 
Sears  seems  encouraged:  — 

Public  schools  are  now  fairly  put  upon  their  own  merits. 
There  can  henceforth  be  little  question  of  their  perpetuity,  for 
the  tide  of  public  opinion  has  been  recently  turned  and  set 
so  strong  in  their  favor  that  it  will  not  be  easy  to  resist  it. 

From  the  summer  of  1876  to  the  summer  of  1877  the 
Peabody  Board  appropriated  $1500  to  Raleigh,  $750  to 
Greensboro,  $600  to  Wilmington,  $500  to  normal  schools, 
$950  to  the  delinquencies  of  the  state  superintendent, 
and  nine  other  schools  each  received  from  $250  to  $450. 
Among  these  were  two  negro  schools,  one  at  Fayette- 
ville  and  one  at  Charlotte. 

In  1878  the  wise  administration  of  the  trustees, 
through  their  able  agent,  Dr.  Sears,  took  account  of  the 
changing  demands  in  the  South  and  began  to  apply  the 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND    289 

aid  of  the  fund  to  the  preparation  of  teachers.  This  aid 
was  extended  by  assisting  teachers'  institutes  and  also 
by  granting  scholarships  to  the  Normal  College  at 
Nashville,  Tennessee.  Through  these  scholarships, 
which  were  awarded  to  promising  young  men  and  wo- 
men of  the  Southern  States,  a  large  number  of  teachers 
were  annually  well  trained  and  returned  to  their  home 
States  for  public  educational  service.  One  of  the  im- 
mediate results  of  this  distribution  of  the  fund  was  the 
growing  interest  taken  in  normal  schools  and  the  train- 
ing of  teachers.  Soon  after  the  new  plan  was  begun 
many  encouraging  signs  appeared,  and  a  new  era  for  edu- 
cation began  to  dawn.  The  trustees  also  continued  to  aid 
educational  journalism  and  to  stimulate  educational  en- 
terprise in  as  many  ways  as  possible. 

From  1878  until  a  final  disposition  was  made  of  the 
fund,  North  Carolina  continued  to  share  in  its  distribu- 
tion. In  1878  about  $4500  was  distributed  to  graded 
schools,  normal  schools,  and  to  other  educational  work 
in  the  State;  and  until  1907,  sums  varying  from  $3000  to 
$7000  were  annually  appropriated  to  aid  the  educational 
interests  of  the  State.  A  part  of  these  amounts  was  for 
scholarships  in  the  Normal  College  at  Nashville,  which 
were  eagerly  sought  after  and  very  highly  prized. 

Certain  definite  results  of  the  influence  of  the  fund 
appear.  It  aided  in  the  stimulation  of  local  enterprise 
and  community  patriotism  and  the  gradual  rise  of  city 
and  town  school  systems;  in  encouragement  to  the  final 
establishment  of  complete  state  systems  of  schools;  in 
the  gradual  removal  of  hostility  to  educating  the  f reed- 
men;  and  it  had  a  tendency  to  aid  in  removing  the  bitter 
spirit  of  sectionalism. 

We  have  already  seen  that  as  much  as  $87,600  was 


£90    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

appropriated  to  North  Carolina  during  the  first  ten  years 
of  the  operation  of  the  fund.  This  means  that  com- 
munities raised  by  local  taxation  or  otherwise  between 
$262,000  and  $350,000  for  education  in  the  State  which 
would  otherwise  not  have  been  available.  This  does  not, 
however,  represent  the  permanent  value  of  the  spirit  of 
local  effort  which  was  thus  stimulated  and  which  gradu- 
ally developed  and  spread  throughout  the  State;  it 
would  be  difficult  to  estimate  that  spirit.  It  is  enough 
to  indicate  the  manner  in  which  the  Peabody  appropria- 
tions early  aided  in  the  development  of  sentiment  for 
local  taxation  for  school  purposes.  After  1874,  by  special 
permission  of  the  Legislature,  several  towns  and  cities 
were  given  authority  to  place  their  schools  on  a  more 
efficient  and  substantial  basis,  extending  their  terms, 
and  increasing  their  equipments  and  teaching  forces. 
This  idea  of  improvement  gradually  grew  until  it 
reached  most  of  the  towns  of  the  State. 

The  final  establishment  of  complete  state  systems  of 
public  schools  was  also  aided  by  the  policy  of  the  trus- 
tees and  the  personal  efforts  of  the  agents  of  the  fund. 
Through  public  addresses,  conferences  with  legislative 
committees,  and  consultations  with  public  leaders,  Mr. 
Sears  helped  to  make  education  appear  as  a  function  of 
government,  a  theory  which  soon  became  generally 
secure  in  the  public  mind.  A  property  tax  for  purposes 
of  education  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  legitimate  and 
essential,  opposition  to  which  had  before  this  time  been 
more  traditional  than  rational.  And  the  general  move- 
ment for  normal  schools  and  teachers'  institutes,  sup- 
ported and  maintained  by  the  State,  is  easily  traceable 
in  its  development  and  growth  to  the  influence  and  aid 
of  this  benefaction. 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND  291 

Hostility  ato,  or  prejudice  against,  the  idea  of  furnish- 
ing educational  facilities  to  the  freedmen  was  probably 
somewhat  diminished  by  the  influence  of  the  fund.  To 
offer  the  children  of  the  emancipated  slaves  educational 
advantages  equal  to  those  now  afforded  the  children  of 
their  late  masters,  in  opposition  to  all  tradition  and 
custom,  required  a  courage  and  a  liberality  that  few 
men  were  thought  to  possess.  And  while  a  few  slowly 
and  with  feeling  made  the  necessary  adjustment,  the 
general  disposition  on  the  part  of  representative 
Southern  leaders  to  discriminate  against  the  colored 
people  was  rarely  seen.  Cases  of  discrimination  were  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule;  most  of  the  leaders  felt 
kindly  toward  the  colored  people  until  foolish  ideas  of 
unworthy  teachers  and  of  visionary  and  impassioned 
zealots  created  mischief  and  alarm  among  those  who 
labored  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  Southern  life.  In 
spite  of  the  confusion  of  the  times  and  the  vicious  condi- 
tions and  influences  which  lent  themselves  in  making 
more  difficult  and  delicate  the  problem  of  sympathetic 
racial  cooperation,  the  Southern  States  gave  nearly 
$110,000,000  between  1870  and  1900  to  help  educate 
the  negro.  The  apparent  disparity  in  the  number  of 
schools  for  white  and  for  colored  children  was  due  to  the 
extreme  difficulty  and  often  impossibility  of  securing 
qualified  teachers  for  the  negro  schools. 

While  the  trust  was  established  primarily  to  help 
"  the  educational  needs  of  those  portions  of  our  beloved 
and  common  country  which  have  suffered  from  the 
destructive  ravages,  and  not  less  disastrous  conse- 
quences of  civil  war,"  Mr.  Peabody  clearly  had  in  mind 
the  promotion  of  the  common  good.  "This  I  give  to  the 
suffering  South  for  the  good  of  the  whole  country"  was 


292  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  sentiment  which  he  expressed  when  he  made  his 
second  great  donation  in  July,  1869.  This  benefaction  of 
a  Northern  man,  the  caution  and  tact  of  his  trustees, 
and  the  activity  of  their  efficient  and  able  agents,  and 
finally,  the  influence  on  the  masses  of  the  gradual 
growth  of  a  wholesome  educational  sentiment,  for 
developing  which  the  fund  had  been  so  faithfully  used, 
helped  to  remove  much  of  the  bitter  sectionalism  which 
was  known  generally  to  exist,  and  to  establish  and  main- 
tain a  bond  of  fellowship  between  the  two  sections  so 
lately  at  war.  Mr.  Winthrop,  for  so  long  chairman  of  the 
board  of  trustees,  pronounced  the  gift  "  the  earliest  man- 
ifestation of  a  spirit  of  reconciliation  toward  those  from 
whom  we  have  been  so  unhappily  alienated  and  against 
whom  we  of  the  North  had  been  so  recently  arrayed  in 
arms." 


WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  PEABODY  FUND    293 


REFERENCES 

Proceedings  of  the  Peabody  Board  Trustees,  annual  after 
1867;  Ayres,  L.  P.,  Seven  Greed  Foundations;  Report  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1893,  vol.  i,  pp. 
739-71;  Annual  Reports  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  of  North  Carolina,  1869-1904;  Knight,  "The 
Peabody  Fund  and  its  Early  Operation  in  North  Carolina," 
in  South  Atlantic  Quarterly y  vol.  xiv,  no.  2;  Alderman  and 
Gordon,  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  a  Biography;  Curry,  History  of  the 
Peabody  Fund. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Peabody  Fund? 

2.  Note  the  plan  adopted  for  administering  the  fund.  How 
did  the  plan  stimulate  educational  interest  and  effort? 

3.  How  did  the  endowment  stimulate  the  rise  of  public  high 
schools  in  North  Carolina? 

4.  What  schools  did  the  fund  aid  in  your  county? 

5.  How  did  the  fund  stimulate  local  taxation  in  your  com- 
munity? 

6.  What  aid  was  given  to  teachers'  institutes  in  your  county? 

7.  In  what  other  way  did  it  aid  teacher  training  in  your 
county? 

8.  How  did  the  fund  probably  assist  in  decreasing  preju- 
dice to  the  education  of  the  negro? 

9.  Compare  the  principle  on  which  the  fund  was  distrib- 
uted to  the  principle  on  which  the  literary  fund  was  dis- 
tributed before  1860. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT    (1877-1900) 

Not  only  was  a  great  political  and  social  change  tak- 
ing place  in  North  Carolina  and  in  the  other  Southern 
States  in  1876,  but  educational  changes  appeared  as  well. 
These  changes  were  apparent  in  both  sentiment  and 
action.  Men  of  reflection  had  agreed  that  an  ignorant 
and  debased  people  could  not  contribute  toward  the 
resources  of  the  South,  and  free  public  schools  for  all 
classes  were  accepted  as  the  only  remedy  for  a  desolate 
condition.  In  most  sections  schools  began  to  advance  in 
almost  every  respect.  Attendance  increased,  popular  in-^ 
terest  in  education  became  more  general,  school  manage- 
ment greatly  improved,  and  proficiency  in  the  teachers*, 
art  began  to  show  growth.  Teachers'  institutes  and  nor- 
mal schools  were  rapidly  multiplying  and  developing  in 
efficiency  in  almost  every  State.  In  North  Carolina 
educational  conditions  appeared  more  hopeful  than  at 
any  time  since  the  war. 

This  sudden  change  in  educational  enterprises  is  no 
less  astonishing  than  creditable.  The  rebuilding  of  a 
public-school  system  after  the  war  was  a  more  difficult 
problem  in  the  South  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
Nation;  and  the  question  of  educating  all  the  people 
soon  became  more  critically  important  to  the  Southern 
States  than  to  any  other  section  of  the  Union.  The 
South  emerged  from  the  Civil  War  with  a  loss  of  fully 
one  tenth  of  her  white  male  population  and  practically 
all  of  her  accumulated  capital.  Not  only  was  it  difficult 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  295 

to  restore  the  material  resources  necessary  for  an  ef- 
ficient school  system,  but  the  crime  of  Reconstruction 
made  the  restoration  of  public  confidence  a  difficult  and 
tedious  process.  In  fact,  Reconstruction  proved  more 
destructive  than  the  war.  Not  only  did  it  rob  the  South 
of  what  the  war  had  spared,  but  by  looting  treasuries, 
squandering  school  funds,  imposing  enormous  taxes, 
practicing  fraud  and  extravagance,  and  by  piling  up 
colossal  bonded  debts,  it  succeeded  in  running  its  corrupt 
and  criminal  fingers  deep  "  into  the  pockets  of  posterity." 
In  North  Carolina  Reconstruction  left  a  debt  of 
$38,000,000,  and  more  than  $300,000,000  in  the  South. 
Thus,  by  the  greatest  tragedy  in  modern  history,  —  the 
war  and  its  aftermath,  —  many  of  the  richest  portions 
of  the  South  were  wasted  and  shorn  of  their  prosperity, 
industry  was  checked,  idleness  and  fraud  were  widely 
encouraged,  local  justice  thwarted  and  put  in  contempt, 
the  people  ruled  by  evil  and  corrupt  officials,  and  tend- 
encies to  good  government  stifled.  This  experience 
explains  why  the  South  has  been  charged  with  educa- 
tional backwardness  since  the  Civil  War,  with  a  reputa- 
tion for  hating  taxes  and  tax  collectors,  and  with  distrust 
of  "public  welfare"  plans  and  movements.  In  this  ex- 
perience may  also  be  found  an  explanation  for  the  so- 
called  devotion  of  the  South  to  a  sort  of  laissez-faire 
theory  in  education,  and  frequent  extreme  applications 
of  the  principle  of  local  government  in  educational  ad- 
ministration. Here,  again,  are  still  other  "heritages"  of 
Reconstruction. 

In  view  of  the  experiences  of  that  bitter  period,  it  is 
indeed  surprising  that  the  South,  during  the  past  forty 
years,  has  finally  very  largely  overcome  the  financial  and 
political  relapses  of  the  war  and  Reconstruction,  and  has 


296    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

so  rapidly  outgrown  the  deadening  indifference  which 
was  born  of  pitiable  poverty  and  the  burden  of  a  great 
wrong.  Gradually,  however,  the  South  turned  her  face 
toward  the  future  and,  for  the  sake  of  her  children, 
endeavored  to  forget  the  past.  The  thoughtful  men  of 
the  time  knew  that  the  fortunes  and  prosperity  of  the 
South  could  be  restored  only  by  school  systems  adapted 
to  the  changed  conditions;  they  understood  that  the 
industrial  development  of  the  South  and  her  religious 
and  social  development  all  depended  on  the  general 
education  of  the  people.  The  beginning  had  to  be  made 
in  poverty  and  discouragement,  and  in  the  face  of 
numerous  difficulties  which  tested  the  hope  of  a  peo- 
ple already  threatened  with  despair.  But  recuperation 
gradually  set  in,  and  so  rapidly  has  it  gained  that  the 
economic  and  social  changes  of  the  past  forty  years  can 
scarcely  be  matched  in  all  human  history.  With  homes 
burned,  fields  laid  waste,  the  political,  industrial,  and 
social  systems  destroyed;  with  many  of  her  leaders 
dead,  and  with  a  generation  of  widows  and  orphans  to 
educate  and  care  for,  the  South,  poverty-stricken,  under- 
took the  maintenance  of  two  systems  of  schools  for  the 
proper  training  of  her  youth.  For  many  years  progress 
was  necessarily  slow,  and  much  even  now  remains  to  be 
done.  But  what  has  been  achieved  finds  explanation  in 
the  remarkable  bravery,  heroism,  and  industry  of  the 
Southern  people  which  made  them  unwilling  to  live  un- 
der the  shadow  of  a  bitter  past. 

Signs  of  an  awakening  began  to  appear  in  North 
Carolina  in  18761  iwhen  the  return  to  "home  rule"  was 
made.  The  gospel  of  public  education  for  all  classes 
began  to  be  preached  again  and  with  an  enthusiasm  that 
was  as  rare  as  it  was  remarkable.     In  November  of 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  297 

that  year  Governor  Brogden  said  to  the  new  Legisla- 
ture:—  .         • 

Education  is  of  the  greatest  value  and  importance  to  the 
people,  and  it  should  receive  the  cordial  approbation  and 
encouragement  of  all.  .  .  .  The  hope  of  our  State  rests  with  a 
more  thorough  system  of  common  schools.  The  position  which 
she  will  in  the  future  hold  in  the  Republic  must  greatly  depend 
upon  the  correct  instruction  given  to  the  people.  Our  children 
must  be  elevated  in  the  scale  of  intelligence  ere  the  perpetuity 
of  the  Republic  can  be  well  assured,  and  nothing  should  be  per- 
mitted to  swerve  us  from  our  efforts  to  popularize  education. 

He  also  called  attention  to  the  need  of  provisions  for 
training  teachers,  urged  support  for  the  university,  and 
recommended  a  college  for  the  education  of  the  negro, 
and  the  passage  of  laws  by  which  towns  and  cities  could 
tax  themselves  for  free-school  support. 

Two  months  later,  in  January,  1877,  Governor  Vance 
urged  legislative  attention  "to  the  great  subject  of 
education."  With  his  message  he  sent  a  memorial  of  the 
Central  North  Carolina  Teachers'  Association  which 
asked  the  Legislature  for  the  consideration  for  education 
"which  its  importance  demands."  The  memorialists  be- 
lieved that  the  general  educational  fund  was  liberal,  but 
that  the  results  accomplished  were  not  commensurate 
with  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  and  the  school 
fund. 

The  money  is  spent,  and  the  children  are  not  educated.  The 
people  are  taxed  to  support  the  schools,  but  they  derive  very 
little  benefit  from  them.  .  .  .  The  true  remedy  is,  to  permit 
the  people  of  each  township  and  of  each  city  and  incorporated 
town  in  the  State  to  tax  themselves  by  a  majority  vote  for 
school  purposes.  There  is  no  sufficient  reason  why  the  people 
of  North  Carolina  should  not  enjoy  this  right  and  privilege 
which  is  enjoyed  in  almost  all  the  other  States  of  this  Union. 
Surely  the  people  may  be  trusted  in  this,  as  in  other  States,  to 


298    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

take  care  of  themselves,  and  provide  for  the  education  of  their 
children. 

The  memorialists  also  asked  for  adequate  provision 
for  the  education  of  teachers.  Lack  of  this  provision  had 
been  a  crying  need  of  Reconstruction  and  the  defect  was 
widely  felt.  It  was  believed  that  the  defect  could  be  par- 
tially remedied  by  authorizing  an  annual  county  appro- 
priation for  teachers'  institutes.  Moreover,  need  was  also 
felt  for  a  fully  organized  normal  school  in  which  pro- 
spective teachers,  as  well  as  those  already  in  service, 
could  be  drilled  in  the  subjects  taught  in  the  public 
schools  and  also  given  training  in  methods  of  teaching 
and  school  management.  Continuing,  the  memorial 
said:  — 

The  public  schools  are  the  nurseries  of  the  future  citizen. 
A  very  large  majority  of  the  people  will  begin  and  end  their 
education  in  these  schools.  Hence,  whatever  is  done  by  educa- 
tion to  make  them  better  citizens  must  be  done  here.  A  with- 
holding here  would  tend  only  to  poverty.  We  are  an  indus- 
trial people,  and  our  prosperity  must  depend  mainly  upon  the 
great  industries  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  We  will 
prosper  as  these  interests  are  developed;  and  decline,  as  they 
are  neglected.  The  branches  of  learning  which  tend  to  develop 
these  great  interests  are  already  provided  for  in  the  university. 
To  place  them  within  the  reach  of  the  people,  they  should 
be  put  into  the  public  schools.  To  this  end  your  memorialists 
would  ask  that  you  establish  a  thoroughly  organized  normal 
school  in  the  university. 

In  transmitting  the  memorial  Governor  Vance  said: — - 

It  is  impossible  to  have  an  effective  public-school  system 
without  providing  for  the  training  of  teachers.  The  blind  can- 
not lead  the  blind.  Mere  literary  attainments  are  not  suf- 
ficient to  make  its  possessor  a  successful  teacher.  There  must 
be  added  ability  to  influence  the  young  and  to  communicate 
knowledge.  There  must  be  a  mastery  of  the  best  modes  of 
conducting  schools,  and  of  bringing  out  the  latent  possibili- 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  299 

ties,  intellectual  and  moral,  of  the  pupil's  nature.  In  some  rare 
cases  these  qualities  are  inborn,  but  generally  it  is  of  vast  ad- 
vantage to  teachers  to  be  trained  by  those  who  have  studied 
and  mastered  the  methods  which  have  been  found  by  experi- 
ence to  be  the  most  successful  in  dispelling  ignorance  and  in- 
culcating knowledge.  The  schools  in  which  this  training  is 
conducted,  called  normal  colleges,  or  normal  schools,  have 
been  found  by  experience  to  be  most  efficient  agents  in  raising 
up  a  body  of  teachers  who  infuse  new  life  and  vigor  into  the 
public  schools.  There  is  urgent  need  for  one,  at  least,  in  North 
Carolina. 

The  constitution  of  the  State,  in  Section  4,  Article  IX,  re- 
quires the  General  Assembly,  as  soon  as  practicable,  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain,  in  connection  with  the  university,  a  depart- 
ment of  normal  instruction.  I  respectfully  submit  that  it  is 
now  practicable  to  make  a  beginning  in  carrying  out  this  pro- 
vision of  the  constitution.1  There  cannot  possibly  be  found  in 
the  State  competent  teachers  for  our  public  schools.  The  rec- 
ords of  the  county  examiners  show  that  most  of  the  applicants 
for  the  post  of  imparting  knowledge  to  others  are  themselves 
deficient  in  the  simplest  elements  of  spelling,  reading,  arith- 
metic, and  writing.  The  university  is  now  in  successful  opera- 
tion. If  the  General  Assembly  should  appropriate  an  amount 
sufficient  to  establish  one  professorship  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
structing in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  I  am  persuaded 
the  best  results  would  follow.  A  school  of  a  similar  character 
should  be  established  for  the  education  of  colored  teachers,  the 
want  of  which  is  more  deeply  felt  by  the  black  race  even  than 
the  white.  In  addition  to  the  fact  that  it  is  our  plain  duty  to 
make  no  discrimination  in  the  matter  of  public  education,  I 

1  This  suggests  the  criticism  which  Dr.  Ruffner,  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  in  Virginia,  was  at  about  the  same  time  making 
of  the  Legislature  of  that  State  in  neglecting  to  provide  facilities  for 
training  teachers.  The  constitution  of  Virginia  likewise  required  the 
establishment  of  normal  schools  "as  soon  as  practicable";  but  with 
the  exception  of  two  normal  schools  for  negroes,  supported  largely  by 
contributions  from  the  North,  no  provision  was  made  for  normal 
training  in  Virginia  until  after  Reconstruction.  See  the  author's 
study,  "Reconstruction  and  Education  in  Virginia,"  in  the  South 
Atlantic  Quarterly  for  January  and  April,  1916. 


300    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

cannot  too  strongly  urge  upon  you  the  importance  of  the  con- 
sideration that  whatever  of  education  we  may  be  able  to  give  to 
the  children  of  the  State  should  be  imparted  under  our  own 
auspices,  and  with  a  thorough  North  Carolina  spirit.  Many 
philosophical  reasons  can  be  given  in  support  of  this  proposi- 
tion. I  am  conscious  of  few  things  more  dangerous  than  for  a 
State  to  suffer  the  education  of  an  entire  class  of  its  citizens 
to  drift  into  the  hands  of  strangers,  most  of  whom  are  not  at- 
tached to  our  institutions,  if  not  positively  unfriendly  to  them. 
There  are  in  the  State  several  very  respectable  institutions 
for  the  education  of  black  people,  and  a  small  endowment  to 
one  of  them  would  enable  it  to  attach  a  normal  school  suf- 
ficient to  answer  the  present  needs  of  our  black  citizens.  Their 
desire  for  education  is  an  extremely  creditable  one,  and  should 
be  gratified  as  far  as  our  means  wilt  permit.  In  short,  I  regard 
it  as  an  unmistakable  policy  to  imbue  these  black  people  with 
a  hearty  North  Carolina  feeling,  and  make  them  cease  to  look 
abroad  for  the  aids  to  their  progress  and  civilization  and  the 
protection  of  their  rights  as  they  have  been  taught  to  do,  and 
to  teach  them  to  look  to  their  State  instead ;  to  convince  them 
that  their  welfare  is  indissolubly  linked  with  ours. 

Governor  Vance's  recommendations  were  not  with- 
out effect,  for,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  two  important  laws  were  passed  by  the  Legis- 
lature early  in  1877.  One  of  these  acts  established  two 
normal  schools,  one  for  each  race,  and  the  other  gave  to 
towns  of  a  certain  size  authority  to  raise  additional 
funds  for  school  purposes j 

The  normal  school  for  white  teachers  opened  at  the 
state  university  July  3,  1877,  and  continued  six  weeks, 
with  an  enrollment  of  235,  representing  forty- two 
counties.  The  average  daily  attendance  was  157.  Both 
men  and  women  were  enrolled  in  the  school,  though  the 
law  contemplated  training  only  for  the  men.  Instruc- 
tion was  given  by  a  faculty  of  six  members,  all  of  whom 
were  trained   in  normal-school   methods.   Recitations 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  301 

and  lectures  were  given  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  analy- 
sis, geography,  reading,  orthography,  phonetics,  pen- 
manship, and  practical  instruction  was  given  in  such 
subjects  as  "school  discipline,  methods,  organization, 
qualifications,  legal  relation  of  teacher,  parent,  and 
child."  Daily  drills  in  vocal  music  were  also  given,  and 
in  addition  to  the  regular  daily  exercises  of  the  school, 
frequent  public  lectures  were  delivered  by  eminent  men 
who  visited  the  school  for  that  purpose.  There  was  no 
charge  for  tuition,  and  the  railroads  granted  half -fare  to 
the  students.  The  Peabody  Board  appropriated  the 
sum  of  $500  to  supplement  the  state  appropriation  of 
$2000  to  aid  the  work  of  the  school.  Certain  book  com- 
panies made  valuable  gifts  of  books  to  be  used  by  the 
students. 

The  normal  school  for  colored  teachers  was  estab- 
lished at  Fayetteville  and  opened  in  September,  1877, 
with  an  enrollment  of  40.  In  a  short  time  the  attend- 
ance numbered  58,  20  of  whom  were  women,  who  were 
admitted  on  equal  terms  with  the  men.  The  work  of  the 
school  continued  eight  months  and  was  successful  be- 
yond the  expectations  of  the  state  board.  The  students 
were  given  instruction  in  practically  the  same  subjects 
which  the  teachers  in  the  other  normal  pursued  and 
were  given  some  training  in  practice  teaching  and 
observation. 

Each  student  teaches  one  class,  at  one  recitation,  daily,  un- 
der the  eye  of  the  principal,  and  thus  has  an  opportunity  to 
put  in  practice  the  instruction  obtained  in  the  normal  class. 
Theory  and  practice  thus  go  hand  in  hand.  Evidence  of  skill 
and  faithfulness  on  the  part  of  the  teachers,  and  of  diligence 
and  perseverance  on  the  £art  of  the  scholars,  was  exhibited  in 
every  branch  of  study  pursued  during  the  term. 


302    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

This  school  was  also  aided  by  the  Peabody  Board,  and 
the  students  also  agreed  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of 
the  State  at  least  three  years  after  leaving  the  normal 
school.  Robert  Harris,  whom  Governor  Vance  de- 
scribed as  "a  native  colored  man  of  excellent  character 
and  capacity,"  was  in  charge  of  the  institution. 

In  1878  the  attendance  at  the  white  normal  increased 
to  402,  of  whom  190  were  women,  and  had  an  average 
attendance  of  329.  Fifty-nine  counties  were  represented 
in  the  enrollment.  At  this  session  the  teachers  organ- 
ized a  "North  Carolina  Teachers'  Association "  and  took 
steps  toward  the  formation  of  county  associations 
throughout  the  counties  of  the  State.  Committees  were 
also  appointed  to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  state 
school  system  and  suggest  remedies  for  its  weaknesses, 
which  were  numerous.  The  colored  normal  likewise 
prospered,  with  an  enrollment  of  114.  The  work  was 
carried  on  practically  as  it  was  the  previous  year. 

Probably  in  1877,  but  certainly  by  the  summer  of  1878, 
normal  school  work  was  resumed  in  Trinity  College  under 
the  direction  of  its  president,  Dr.  Braxton  Craven,  and 
continued  for  several  summers,  with  an  annual  term 
of  four  weeks.  In  1879  the  enrollment  was  184,  more 
than  100  of  whom  were  teachers  in  the  common  schools 
of  the  State.  They  received  instruction  in  English  gram- 
mar, arithmetic,  geography,  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
history,  algebra,  Latin,  school  government,  and  methods 
of  teaching,  and  in  "  all  other  matters  pertaining  to  the 
common  schools."  In  that  year  certificates  were  given 
to  38  teachers  "  who  were  found  qualified  according  to 
law."1 

1  From  the  unpublished  correspondence  of  Braxton  Craven;  letter 
of  July  5,  1880,  to  the  commissioners  of  Randolph  County.    The  au- 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  303 

For  the  year  ending  September  1,  1877,  the  total  ex- 
penditures for  public-school  purposes  in  North  Carolina 
were  $289,213.32.  The  school  population  was  408,296: 
whites,  267,265,  and  colored  141,031.  Only  128,289 
white  children  and  73,170  colored  children  were  enrolled. 
The  average  attendance  of  the  white  children  was 
62,628,  and  of  the  colored  children,  41,535.  The  num- 
ber of  public  schools  for  white  children  was  2885,  and 
for  colored  children,  1550.  The  number  of  teachers  ex- 
amined and  approved  during  the  year  was  2382 :  whites, 
1569,  and  colored,  813. 

In  1878  the  total  public  funds  for  educational  pur- 
poses in  the  State  were  $452,515.53,  and  the  total 
amount  expended  was  $324,287.10.  The  school  popula- 
tion was  422,380:  whites,  273,767,  and  colored,  148,613. 
The  enrollment  for  the  year  was  as  follows:  whites, 
146,681,  with  an  average  attendance  of  82,054;  colored 
81,411,  with  an  average  attendance  of  50,499.  The 
number  of  public  schools  taught  during  the  year  was, 
for  white  children,  3388;  for  colored  children,  1761. 
The  average  school  term  for  the  State  was  nine  weeks, 
and  the  average  monthly  salary  paid  teachers  was 

thor  is  informed  by  Professor  William  H.  Pegram,  of  Trinity  College, 
who  was  an  instructor  in  this  normal  school,  that  it  was  among  the 
first,  if  not  the  first,  institution  in  the  State  to  give  instruction  in 
kindergarten  methods.  Dr.  Craven  brought  to  the  school  Mrs. 
Louise  Pollock  and  her  daughter,  Miss  Susie  Pollock,  of  Washington 
City,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  instruction  in  this  work.  President 
Battle,  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  to  which  institution 
these  teachers  later  went  for  similar  work,  said  of  them,  in  reporting 
the  work  of  the  normal  school  at  Chapel  Hill  in  1880:  "The  kin- 
dergarten department  was  a  valuable  and  attractive  feature  of  the 
Normal  School.  Mrs.  Louise  Pollock  and  Miss  Susie  Pollock  brought 
to  the  management  of  this  department  the  best  theoretical  instruc- 
tion to  be  had  in  America  and  Europe,  assisted  by  long  and  varied 
experience  as  practical  teachers."   (See  Leg.  Doc.  1881.) 


S04    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

$23.18.  The  number  of  teachers  examined  and  approved 
during  the  year  was  3722 :  whites,  2486,  and  colored,  1236. 

The  public-school  fund  in  1879  was  $473,201.34,  and 
in  1880  it  had  increased  to  $523,555.22.  The  disburse- 
ments in  1879  were  $326,040.85;  in  1880  they  were 
$352,882.65.  The  school  population  increased  from 
426,189  in  1879  to  459,325  the  following  year;  but  the 
enrollment  decreased  from  238,749  to  225,606,  and  the 
average  attendance  had  fallen  from  150,788  to  147,802 
in  the  same  time.  The  number  of  public  schools  taught 
in  1879  was  5503  and  only  5312  the  following  year.  The 
average  school  term  increased  from  nine  and  one  fourth 
weeks  to  ten  weeks.  The  average  monthly  salary  paid 
teachers  was  $22.14  in  1879  and  only  $21.91  in  1880. 
The  number  of  public  schoolhouses  had  increased  during 
that  time  from  3457  to  3766. 

When  the  Legislature  met  in  January,  1881,  the 
opinion  was  widespread  in  the  State  that,  in  spite  of 
certain  improvements  in  the  school  system  since  1876,  it 
was  still  very  defective  and  that  further  improvements 
were  necessary.  A  demand  appeared  for  as  thorough 
revision  of  the  school  law  as  was  possible  at  the  time. 
"The  old  system  was  pronounced  to  be  worse  than  no 
system;  and  in  truth  there  was  but  little  system  about 
it."  This  opinion  of  Superintendent  Scarborough  was 
shared  by  Governor  Thomas  J.  Jarvis,  who,  addressing 
the  Legislature,  said :  — 

Education  I  regard  as  the  great  interest  of  the  State,  an  in- 
terest too  great  to  be  disposed  of  by  a  few  paragraphs  in  a 
message.  But  while  I  may  avail  myself  of  another  occasion  to 
address  you  on  this  subject,  I  cannot  now  dismiss  it  without 
pleading  for  more  money  for  the  children.  In  the  discussions 
I  have  seen  in  the  papers,  the  system  has  been  mainly  the  topic. 
Very  little  has  been  said  about  the  money  to  carry  on  the 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  805 

system.  While  one  system  may  be  better  than  another,  the  most 
perfect  is  not  worth  the  paper  on  which  it  is  written  without 
money  to  build  schoolhouses  and  pay  teachers.  Money  is,  and 
must  be,  the  heart  and  life  of  every  system.  While  I  hope  to 
see  you  make  the  system  as  perfect  as  possible,  I  beg  that  you 
will  not  forget  to  provide  the  money.  This  can  be  done  only 
by  taxation.  Will  you  impose  it?  I  think  the  people  will  ap- 
prove it.  The  tax  for  schools  is  now  only  eight  and  a  third  cents 
on  a  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  property,  and  twenty-five  cents 
on  the  poll.  Three  times  that  on  each  would  not  be  burden- 
some but  wise  legislation.  The  salary  of  the  [superintendent 
of  public  instruction  should  be  largely  increased,  and  I  trust  you 
will  do  this  before  the  time  comes  for  the  gentleman  x  elected 
to  that  position  to  qualify.  Instead  of  degrading  this  very  im- 
portant office  into  a  mere  clerkship,  as  has  been  the  case,  it 
should  be  dignified  and  elevated  to  a  rank  so  high  that  it  will 
command  at  all  times  the  best  talent  of  the  State. 

The  governor  commended  the  work  of  the  normal 
schools  and  recommended  that  the  annual  appropriation 
for  their  maintenance  be  continued.  He  also  urged 
proper  attention  to  the  university,  which  was  "resuming 
her  wonted  place  of  usefulness  and  renown." 

Another  evidence  of  a  demand  for  improved  educa- 
tional conditions  appeared  in  a  memorial  which  the 
State  Teachers'  Association,  at  its  meeting  in  July,  1880, 
adopted  and  forwarded  to  the  Legislature.  The  memo- 
rial requested  that  body  to  increase  the  school  tax  for 
the  entire  State  to  an  amount  sufficient  to  maintain  a 
school  four  months  each  year  in  every  district  in  the 
State  and  to  give  local  districts  authority  to  raise  addi- 
tional taxes  for  school  purposes.  This  authority  had 
already  been  given  to  several  towns  of  the  State.  "It 
is  the  very  germ  of  a  good  system,  and  this  right  belongs 
to  every  school  district."  The  memorial  also  asked  the 
Legislature  to  authorize  the  county  boards  of  education 
1  John  C.  Scarborough. 


306  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

to  appropriate  money  for  county  institutes  for  training 
teachers;  to  authorize  only  two  grades  of  teachers'  cer- 
tificates; to  provide  for  the  introduction  of  industrial 
subjects  into  the  public  schools;  to  require  local  school 
officials  to  erect  a  suitable  house  in  each  school  district; 
to  provide  for  the  selection  of  a  better  equipped  and 
more  competent  body  of  county  examiners;  and  to  pre- 
scribe a  series  of  books  to  be  used  in  the  schools. 

The  recommendations  of  the  state  superintendent  at 
the  same  time  were  also  significant.  First  of  all  he  urged 
increased  facilities  for  training  teachers  by  continuing 
the  annual  appropriations  to  the  two  normal  schools 
already  in  operation,  and  by  the  establishment  of  other 
similar  schools,  for  both  races,  and  also  by  making 
provision  for  county  teachers'  institutes.  He  also  re- 
commended the  creation  of  the  office  of  county  super- 
intendent, to  take  the  place  of  the  county  examiner;  to 
authorize  the  appointment  of  the  district  school  com- 
mittees by  the  county  boards  of  education;  and  to 
increase  the  school  revenues  to  a  property  tax  of  twenty- 
five  cents  on  the  hundred  dollars'  valuation  and  a  capi- 
tation tax  of  seventy-five  cents.  The  superintendent 
believed  this  amount  to  be  necessary  to  meet  the  consti- 
tutional requirements.  "Our  school  system  is  far  better 
than  the  support  it  receives  in  money.  Herein  lies  its 
chief  defect."  He  also  recommended  that  legislative 
authority  be  given  for  local  taxation;  that  provision  be 
made  for  improving  the  swamp  lands  which  were  the 
property  of  the  school  fund;  that  measures  be  taken 
looking  to  securing  uniformity  in  textbooks;  that  the 
school  laws  be  codified;  and  that  provision  be  made  for 
defraying  the  traveling  expenses  of  the  superintendent. 
At  this  time  his  salary  was  only  $1500  a  year  and  no 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  307 

appropriations  for  traveling  expenses  or  office  assist- 
ance were  allowed. 

The  year  1881  marked  another  forward  step  in  public 
education  in  North  Carolina.  The  old  school  system 
had  been  in  operation  since  1872,  with  a  few  slight  im- 
provements made  in  1877.  But  the  schools  were  poor 
and  the  school  law  defective. 

The  school  taxes  were  collected  and  spent  and  no  adequate 
return  of  benefits  was  made.  The  schoolhouses  were  in  a  state 
of  decay  and  ruin.  The  incompetency  of  the  public-school 
teachers,  with  few  exceptions,  was  proverbial.  The  system  was 
a  failure  and  a  farce,  and  the  people  paid  taxes  unwillingly  for 
its  support. 

This  was  the  superintendent's  comment  on  conditions 
in  1881,  when  the  Legislature  met.  That  body  knew  the 
conditions,  which  were  brought  to  its  attention  through 
the  messages  of  the  governor,  the  reports  of  the  state 
superintendent,  and  the  press  of  the  State;  and  acting 
on  the  knowledge  thus  gained,  it  revised  and  greatly 
improved  the  school  laws. 

The  principal  legislative  improvements  made  that 
year  were  an  increase  of  taxes  for  school  support,  pro- 
visions for  county  superintendents,  for  county  teachers' 
institutes,  and  for  four  additional  normal  schools  for  each 
race.  The  curriculum  of  the  public  schools  was  also  pre- 
scribed and  a  standard  of  examination  for  public-school 
teachers  fixed  for  the  guidance  of  the  new  county  officers. 

Property  taxes  for  school  support  were  increased  from 
eight  and  one  third  to  twelve  and  one  half  cents  on  the 
hundred  dollars*  valuation,  and  the  capitation  taxes 
were  raised  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-seven  and  one 
half  cents.  Though  this  was  a  substantial  increase,  it 
was  by  no  means  sufficient  to  maintain  schools  for  the 


308    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

term  required  by  the  constitution.  Both  the  governor 
and  the  superintendent  continued  to  urge  more  liberal 
support  of  public  schools.  Governor  Jarvis  said  in 
1883:  — 

The  system  may  be  perfect,  the  superintendent  able,  the 
teachers  ready,  and  the  people  anxious,  but  unless  the  General 
Assembly  supplies  the  money,  it  will  all  be  worthless.  ...  It 
is  idle  to  talk  of  educating  490,000  children  on  $550,000  a  year! 
The  best  system  of  common  schools  ever  devised  would  be  a 
failure  if  dependent  upon  so  small  an  amount  of  money.  So 
it  need  not  be  a  matter  of  wonder  that  our  system  has  not 
met  public  expectation,  and  that  you  hear  unfavorable  com- 
ment upon  it. 

He  pointed  out  that  under  the  constitution  it  was 
impossible  to  raise  by  taxation  enough  money  to  make 
the  school  system  what  it  should  be.  And  both  he  and 
the  superintendent  urged  an  amendment  by  which  the 
constitutional  limitation  of  taxation  should  not  apply  to 
taxes  levied  for  school  support.  On  account  of  the  low 
valuation  of  property  adopted  throughout  the  State 
nearly  all  the  taxes  that  could  be  levied  were  required 
to  support  the  county  and  state  governments,  and  only 
a  small  amount  was  left  for  schools.  This  lack  of  funds 
proved  a  persistent  educational  problem  in  the  State 
for  many  years. 

This  improvement  in  provision  for  school  support, 
though  insufficient,  was  due  in  no  small  measure  to  the 
efforts  of  Governor  Jarvis.  With  him  public  education 
was  always  a  subject  of  supremest  importance,  and  his 
example  of  fidelity  and  labor  for  its  promotion  remains 
as  a  sacred  heritage  to  the  people  of  the  State  to-day. 
He  was  foremost  in  the  movement  to  rebuild  and  re- 
store the  fortunes  of  the  State  at  the  close  of  the  war  and 
of  Reconstruction.   During  the  six  years  that  he  filled 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  309 

the  executive  office  of  the  State,1  and  indeed  through- 
out the  remainder  of  his  life,  the  "Grand  Old  Man," 
as  he  was  affectionately  referred  to  in  his  later  years, 
worked  for  "  North  Carolina  —  the  development  of  her 
resources  and  the  education  of  her  children,"  and  with 
a  stimulating  earnestness  and  a  profound  faith  which 
everywhere  lent  hope  and  encouragement.  In  his  in- 
augural address,  when  he  assumed  the  duties  of  gov- 
ernor, he  declared  this  to  be  his  purpose,  and  his  mess- 
ages and  numerous  public  utterances  were  filled  with 
the  same  promise.  Addressing  the  Legislature  in  Jan- 
uary, 1883,  he  said:  — 

I  have  tried  to  keep  that  promise.  I  have  visited  the  schools 
in  the  different  sections  of  the  State,  from  the  university  to  the 
common  schools,  and  have  addressed  teachers,  pupils,  and  peo- 
ple. If  North  Carolina  does  not  occupy  a  higher  position  in 
the  scale  of  education  in  the  next  census  report  than  she  does 
in  the  last,  it  shall  be  no  fault  of  mine.  But  after  all,  the  chief 
responsibility  is  with  the  General  Assembly.2 

In  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  Governor  Jarvis  de- 
voted his  efforts  to  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  the  East  Carolina  Teachers'  Training  School,  which 
he  fathered  with  a  beautiful  affection  and  with  an 
enthusiastic  pride  which  was  actually  contagious.  It 
began  and  continued  the  primary  object  of  his  thought 
and  labor  and  soon  became  the  concrete  realization  of 
unselfish  devotion  to  the  noble  purpose  announced  in 
his  address  when  he  was  inaugurated  as  governor  many 
years  before.  That  purpose  remained  with  him  through- 

1  As  lieutenant-governor  he  succeeded  Governor  Vance  in  March, 
1879,  when  the  latter  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  And  in 
November,  1880,  Governor  Jarvis  was  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
beginning  January  1,  1881. 

1  Leg.  Doc.,  no.  1,  Session  of  1883,  p.  81. 


310    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

out  life.  An  excerpt  from  his  will  is  a  solemn  admonition 
to  the  people  he  loved  so  jealously:  — 

Intelligence  and  virtue  mark  the  standing  of  any  people  in 
the  State  and  Nation,  and  I  would  therefore  urge  the  people 
to  press  the  education  of  their  children  far  beyond  anything 
heretofore  attempted.1 

The  provision  for  county  superintendents  was  also 
a  decided  improvement  which  the  Legislature  of  1881 
made.  They  were  to  be  elected  by  a  joint  meeting  of  the 
county  boards  of  education  and  the  county  boards  of 
magistrates,  for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  compensation 
of  the  superintendent  was  to  be  three  dollars  a  day  "for 
all  days  necessarily  engaged  in  the  discharge  of  the 
duties  of  his  position";  but  his  salary  could  not  exceed 
five  per  cent  of  the  apportionment  of  the  county  school 
fund.2  The  need  for  more  central  authority  in  the 
county,  which  this  office  now  furnished,  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  description  which  the  superintendent 
declared  was 

a  true  picture,  in  the  main,  of  hundreds  of  cases  in  the  State,  all 
because  there  was  no  one  with  a  wise  head  charged  with  the 
special  duty  of  visiting  the  people,  advising  conservative 
measures  and  unity  of  action  in  the  interest  of  the  schools: 

About  one  half  of  the  districts  were  without  houses  and 
with  no  money  to  build  them.  This  resulted  in  continued 
controversy  as  to  where  the  school  should  be  taught.  A,  B, 
and  C  of  .any  givfn  district  had  an  unoccupied  house  that 
would  do..  Each  urged  upon  the  committee  the  importance 

1  Connor,  "Thomas  Jordan  Jarvis  and  the  Rebuilding  of  North 
Carolina,"  in  Publications  of  the  North  Carolina  Historical  Commis- 
sion, Bulletin  no.  20. 

*  In  1883  the  Legislature  reduced  the  compensation  of  the  county 
superintendents  and  somewhat  restricted  their  duties.  Superintendent 
Scarborough  regarded  the  action  as  unfortunate,  and  noticed  a  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  institutes  held  and  the  number  of  teachers 
attending. 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  311 

of  having  the  school  taught  in  his  house.  The  committee  was 
forced  to  choose  between  them  and  selected  the  house  of  A; 
it  was  the  best  they  could  do  in  their  judgment.  B  and  C  ob- 
jected, became  enemies  of  the  school,  threw  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  the  teacher,  advised  their  next  neighbors  against  send- 
ing to  the  school,  circulated  petitions  for  the  division  of  the 
district,  and  presented  them  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  county 
board  of  education  and  demanded  immediate  action.  Said 
board,  recognizing  the  right  of  petition,  ordered  the  divi- 
sion demanded,  and  the  result  was  that  the  district,  already 
too  small,  was  divided  into  two,  neither  one  of  which  had 
funds  enough  to  continue  a  school  for  a  longer  term  than  four 
weeks  with  a  very  ordinary  teacher. 

The  educational  administration  of  the  counties  tended 
to  improve  after  the  provision  was  made  for  county  su- 
perintendents. Many  of  the  counties  were  redistricted, 
the  needs  of  the  schools  became  more  vitally  felt,  and 
the  teachers  began  to  show  some  improvement  under 
the  guidance  of  new  officers.  This  improvement  was 
made  possible  by  the  same  law  which  provided  for 
teachers'  institutes  in  the  various  counties.  Although 
this  provision  was  permissive,  more  than  120  institutes 
were  held  in  58  counties  in  1881  and  1882,  in  which 
2260  white  and  650  colored  teachers  were  instructed. 
Teachers'  associations  were  formed  in  many  counties 
and  became  means  of  educational  improvement,  and 
educational  journals  were  beginning  to  be  read  also. 
Perhaps  the  most  noticeable  educational  improvement, 
due  to  the  work  of  the  county  superintendents,  was  the 
increase  in  expenditures  for  building  schoolhouses.  In 
1880  the  total  amount  spent  for  buildings  and  supplies 
was  less  than  $19,000;  in  1882  it  was  nearly  $90,000. 
Although  the  results  in  some  counties  were  not  so  fa- 
vorable as  in  others,  the  outlook  for  the  future  appeared 
more  hopeful  than  hitherto. 


312    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Another  distinctly  advance  step  was  taken  by  the 
same  Legislature  when  eight  additional  normal  schools 
were  established  in  1881,  four  for  white  teachers  and  a 
like  number  for  colored  teachers.  Those  for  the  white 
race  were  established  at  Elizabeth  City,  Wilson,  Newton 
and  Franklin,  and  those  for  the  colored  teachers  at 
Newbern,  Plymouth,  Franklinton,  and  Salisbury.  The 
Legislature  appropriated  $500,  and  the  Peabody  Board 
nearly  half  that  amount,  for  the  maintenance  of  each 
school.  The  sessions  of  the  white  schools  continued  for 
from  four  to  six  weeks,  and  those  of  the  colored  schools 
for  as  long  terms  as  the  funds  appropriated  would  pro- 
vide, usually  from  four  to  eight  months.  This  was 
allowed  because  the  colored  teachers  needed,  more 
largely  than  the  white  teachers,  more  instruction  in  the 
subject-matter  than  in  methods  of  teaching.  The  en- 
rollment in  the  white  schools  the  first  year  was  472;  in 
the  colored  schools  it  was  295.  Attendance  on  these 
schools  continued  to  increase  each  year.  The  normal 
schools  at  the  university  and  at  Fayetteville,  established 
in  1877,  were  also  in  a  thrifty  condition  and  well 
attended.  In  1882  fully  950  white  teachers  and  370 
colored  teachers  received  instruction  in  the  normal 
schools  of  the  State. 

Other  significant  provisions  of  the  new  law  allowed 
the  state  superintendent  $500  for  traveling  expenses 
and  $600  for  clerk  hire;  authorized  the  state  treasurer 
to  restore  to  the  school  fund,  from  the  general  fund,  the 
money  hitherto  expended  for  the  support  of  normal 
schools,  and  defined  the  grades  of  teachers'  certificateX 
Provision  was  made  for  first,  second,  and  third  grade 
certificates,  valid  for  only  one  year  and  in  the  county 
where  issued.    Teachers  of  the  third  grade  could  not 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  313 

receive  a  salary  of  more  than  $15  a  month,  those  of  the 
second  grade  not  more  than  $25  a  month,  and  those  of 
the  first  grade  "such  sum  as  may  be  determined  by  the 
committee,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  county  board 
of  education."  The  law  required  the  teachers  to  attend 
institutes,  but  the  requirement  was  not  always  met. 
With  such  improvements  in  the  laws  opportunities  for 
corresponding  improvements  in  the  school  system  were 
now  afforded.  Considerable  impetus  was  thus  given  to 
education,  and  the  work  of  the  Legislature  was  far- 
reaching  in  its  good  effects. 

One  sign  of  educational  growth  appeared  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  public  graded  schools,  which  were  gen- 
erally meeting  reasonable  public  expectation  both  in 
their  management  and  in  the  work  which  they  were 
doing.  The  first  of  these  schools  was  established  in 
Greensboro  in  1875,  and  two  years  later  one  was  estab- 
lished in  Raleigh.  Others  were  established  as  follows: 
Salisbury,  1880;  Goldsboro,  1881;  Durham,  Charlotte, 
and  Wilmington,  1882;  and  Winston,  1885.  These 
schools  were  established  by  local  tax  levy  or  by  support 
from  the  town  government,  and  in  most  cases  they 
received  aid  from  the  Peabody  Board  also. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  the  following  statistics 
may  be  noted  for  1884 : l 

Total  public  school  funds $765,032 .  16 

Total  disbursements 535,205 .03 

Total  school  population: 

White 314,293 

Colored 189,988 

1  Reports  from  only  ninety-two  counties.  There  were  ninety-six 
counties  in  the  State  at  this  time. 


314     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Total  enrollment: 

White 167,059 

Colored   111,239 

Average  attendance: 

White 104,291 

Colored 65,403 

Public  Schools  taught: 

White 3,845 

Colored 2,175 

Average  school  terms  (in  weeks) : 

White ll£ 

Colored   llf 

Average  monthly  salaries  of  teachers: 

White $24.16 

Colored 22.06 

Teachers  examined  and  approved  during  the  year: 
White  men  — 

First  grade    1,030 

Second  grade 1,059 

Third  grade 207 

White  Women  — 

First  Grade 518 

Second  Grade 530 

Third  Grade 125 

Total 3,469 

Colored  men  — 

First  grade 315 

Second  grade 600 

Third  grade  585 

Colored  women  — 

First  grade 109 

Second  grade 327 

Third  grade 295 

Total 2,231 

Grand  Total 5,700 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  315 

Between  1885  and  1900  progress  in  education  was 
decidedly  slower  than  was  promised  by  the  legislative 
enlargement  of  the  school  work  of  the  State  in  1881. 
School  funds,  which  had  always  been  insufficient,  in- 
creased but  slowly  and  school  terms  were  lengthened 
by  only  a  few  days.  In  1885  the  total  expenditures  for 
public  schools  was  about  $650,000,  and  in  1900  only 
$950,000,  though  the  school  population  had  increased 
from  530,127  in  1885  to  659,629  in  1900.  In  1885  fifty- 
two  per  cent  of  the  school  population  was  enrolled; 
fifteen  years  later  only  fifty-eight  per  cent  was  enrolled. 
The  school  term  had  increased  from  about  sixty  days  in 
1885  to  seventy  days  in  1900.  Teachers'  salaries  showed 
no  improvement.  In  1885  the  average  monthly  salary 
paid  white  teachers  was  about  $25,  and  negro  teachers 
received  about  $23.  In  1900  the  salaries  of  white  teach- 
ers was  practically  the  same  as  in  1885  and  negro 
teachers  received  slightly  less  than  in  that  year.  Many 
of  the  teachers  were  reported  poorly  prepared,  in  spite 
of  generous  legislative  provisions  for  normal  schools  and 
county  teachers'  institutes.  In  1888  the  superintendent 
said:  "Many  of  our  teachers  are  themselves  schoolboys 
and  schoolgirls,  without  sufficient  knowledge  in  books, 
and  especially  without  sufficient  training  in  school  gov- 
ernment and  management."  In  the  same  year  a  large 
number  of  the  schoolhouses  of  the  State  were  reported 
"unfit  for  use,  being  uncomfortable  and  unsafe  to  the 
health  of  the  children." 

The  needs  of  the  schools  during  these  years  were 
numerous.  More  money  for  longer  school  terms,  better 
salaries,  and  improved  school  equipment  was  perhaps  the 
most  urgent  need.  From  1872  to  1881  the  property  tax 
for  school  support  had  been  eight  and  one  third  cents 


816     THE  PtiBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

on  the  hundred  dollars'  valuation,  and  the  capitation 
tax  thirty-seven  and  one  half  cents.  In  1891  these  taxes 
were  raised  to  fifteen  cents  and  forty-five  cents,  re- 
spectively. The  regular  ad-valorem  taxes  provided  by 
the  revenue  law  for  school  support  showed  a  very  slight 
increase  during  these  years.  But  the  superintendent  in 
1890  declared  it  "simply  idle  to  expect  satisfactory 
schools  with  an  average  annual  term  of  sixty  days,  and 
with  an  expenditure  of  money  amounting  to  . . .  only  one 
dollar  and  twenty-two  cents  on  each  of  the  school  popu- 
lation." The  average  school  term  in  the  South  at  that 
time  was  101  days,  and  in  the  United  States  it  was 
135  days.  The  revenue  available  was  insufficient  to 
maintain  schools  for  the  term  required  by  the  constitu- 
tion, and  decisions  of  the  supreme  court  made  it  difficult 
to  secure  more  money  for  educational  purposes. 

We  saw  in  Chapter  XII  that  a  decision  of  the 
supreme  court  in  1870  had  a  retarding  influence  on 
education  in  the  State,  by  holding  that  schools  were  not 
a  necessary  expense.  The  defective  character  of  the 
constitution  and  of  the  school  laws  of  1868  and  1869 
was  also  noted;  they  contained  defects  which  the 
Reform  Legislature  of  1871  failed  to  correct.  Under  the 
constitution l  it  was  the  duty  of  the  county  commission- 
ers to  levy  a  tax  sufficient  to  maintain  the  schools  for 
four  months  in  each  year,  but  in  discharging  this  duty 
they  were  not  allowed  to  disregard  the  limitation  imposed 
by  another  section  of  the  constitution  as  to  the  amount 
of  tax  to  be  levied.  However,  by  the  act  of  1885, 2  the 
commissioners  were  allowed  to  exceed  this  limit. 

In  1885,  obeying  the  constitution  and  the  statute,  the 
commissioners  of  Sampson  County  levied  a  special  tax 

1  Art.  ix,  sec.  3.  *  Laws  of  1385,  chap.  174,  sec.  23. 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  317 

for  supporting  a  four  months'  school.  The  commission- 
ers were  enjoined,  and  at  the  October,  1885  term  of  the 
superior  court  of  the  county  there  was  a  judgment  for 
the  plaintiffs,  the  court  ruling  that  the  tax  levied  under 
the  act  of  1885  overstepped  the  limits  of  the  taxing 
power  conferred  and  was  not  warranted  by  the  consti- 
tution, and  could  not,  therefore,  be  enforced.  The 
defendants  appealed  and  the  supreme  court  affirmed 
the  decision  of  the  lower  court,  holding  that  the  act  of 
1885  was  unconstitutional  and  did  not  come  within  the 
provisions  of  the  constitution  which  authorized  a  spe- 
cial tax  for  a  special  purpose  with  the  approval  of  the 
General  Assembly.1 

Before  1885  the  general  attitude  on  the  subject  of 
local  taxation  for  educational  purposes  had  been  more 
or  less  indifferent,  though  the  influence  of  appropria- 
tions from  the  Peabody  Board  was  rapidly  improving 
that  sentiment  in  many  sections.  The  result  was  a  slow 
but  gradual  increase  in  the  establishment  of  graded 
schools  by  local  taxation.  That  sentiment  was  spread- 
ing and  proving  of  wholesome  influence  when  the 
supreme  court  again  appeared  as  an  obstacle  to  educa- 
tional progress  by  holding  that  the  constitutional 
limitation  of  taxation  could  not  be  exceeded  except  for 
necessary  expenses,  and  a  four  months'  school  term  was 
not  considered  a  necessary  expense.  However,  the  same 
court  held  that  taxes  for  public  streets,  lights,  and  water 
works  were  necessary  expenses  for  which  a  special  tax 
could  be  levied  in  excess  of  the  constitutional  limitation. 
Therefore,  the  decision  in  the  case  cited  above  made  it 
impossible  to  keep  schools  open  for  more  than  two  or 

1  Barksdale  et  al.  vs.  Commissioners  of  Sampson  County,  93  N.C. 
472. 


318     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

three  months  in  the  year.  Several  counties  had  already 
levied  special  taxes  in  order  to  maintain  schools  for  the 
term  required  by  the  constitution,  but  they  were  now 
forced  to  abandon  this  plan  of  school  support,  and  the 
development  of  local  tax  sentiment  was  thus  retarded.1 
Other  decisions  of  the  supreme  court  had  an  unwhole- 
some effect  during  these  years.  By  act  of  March  11, 
1883,  provision  had  been  made  for  local  assessment  for 
school  purposes.2  Acting  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act  the  commissioners  of  Gaston  County  ordered  an 
election  in  one  of  the  school  districts  for  white  children 
on  the  question  of  an  additional  tax  of  twenty  cents  on 
the  property  of  white  owners  and  an  additional  tax  of 
sixty  cents  upon  every  taxable  white  poll,  for  furnishing 
increased  public-school  advantages  to  the  white  children 
of  the  district.  Only  white  electors  were  allowed  to  vote. 
The  election  was  carried,  and  officers  proceeded  to 
collect  the  assessment.  Action  was  instituted  per- 
petually to  enjoin  the  commissioners  from  levying  and 
collecting  the  taxes,  but  the  restraining  order  was 
refused  and  the  plaintiffs  appealed.  The  supreme  court 
found  error  and  reversed  the  decision,  holding  the  act 
of  1883  unconstitutional  both  because  it  did  not  pro- 
vide for  uniform  and  equal  taxation  on  all  property  and 
because  it  made  a  race  discrimination  as  to  the  applica- 
tion of  the  funds.  The  constitution  required  all  taxes 
for  whatever  purposes  to  be  uniform  and  allowed  no 
discrimination  in  favor  of  any  class,  person,  or  interest, 
but  required  all  property  to  be  taxed  equally  and  by 
uniform  rule.  Therefore,  the  court  argued,  a  law  which 

1  The  decision  of  the  court  in  1885  held  until  1907,  when  it  was 
reversed.   See  145  N.C.  170. 
8  Laws  of  1883,  chap.  148. 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  319 

permitted  a  tax  on  the  property  and  polls  of  one  color 
to  be  applied  exclusively  to  the  education  of  children  of 
that  color  was  unconstitutional.  The  law  was  also  con- 
sidered discriminative  and  in  conflict  with  the  constitu- 
tion which  said:  "There  shall  be  no  discrimination  in 
favor  of  or  to  the  prejudice  of  either  race."  However, 
Justice  Merrimon,  who  did  not  concur  in  so  much  of  the 
opinion  of  the  court  as  declared  the  law  of  1883  in- 
operative and  unconstitutional,  held  that  statute  to 
authorize  a  local  tax  and  not  to  prescribe  a  public  tax 
within  the  meaning  of  the  constitution. 

In  still  another  case  the  supreme  court  held  that 
legislation  which  directed  the  tax  raised  from  the  polls 
and  property  of  white  persons  to  be  devoted  to  sustain- 
ing schools  for  the  children  of  the  white  persons,  and 
that  raised  from  the  polls  and  property  of  colored  per- 
sons to  be  used  for  supporting  their  schools,  was  uncon- 
stitutional. There  were  several  graded  schools  in  the 
State  which  were  affected  by  this  decision,  because  by 
provisions  of  the  special  acts  under  which  they  oper- 
ated money  derived  by  taxation  from  white  persons  was 
applied  exclusively  to  white  schools  and  that  from 
colored  persons  to  colored  schools.  Some  of  these  schools 
were  forced  to  discontinue,  or  to  depend  for  support 
on  private  donations,  while  awaiting  favorable  legisla- 
tive relief.1 

More  active  and  competent  county  supervision  was  also 
a  serious  need  of  the  school  system.  Various  changes 
were  made  in  the  law  providing  for  county  superintend- 
ents after  its  original  enactment  in  1881,  but  improve- 
ment in  this  part  of  the  school  system  was  slow.  In 
1883  the  duties  of  the  office  were  restricted  and  its  pos- 
1  Rigsbee  ra.  the  Town  of  Durham,  94  N.C.  800. 


320    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

sibilities  somewhat  crippled.  In  1895  the  office  was 
abolished  and  its  duties  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
clerk  of  the  board  of  county  commissioners.  The  same 
act  1  abolished  the  county  board  of  education  and  the 
duties  of  that  body  were  turned  over  to  the  county 
commissioners.  In  the  same  year  provision  was  made 
for  county  examiners,  but  two  years  later  that  office 
was  abolished  and  provision  made  for  a  county  board  of 
education  and  a  county  supervisor  of  schools  with  duties 
practically  the  same  as  those  previously  prescribed  for 
county  superintendents.  Two  years  later  the  Legisla- 
ture provided  for  the  election  of  a  county  superintend- 
ent, who  was  required  to  be  "a  practical  teacher"  and 
•%o  have  had  at  the  time  of  election  at  least  two  years' 
experience  in  teaching  or  in  public-school  work.  He  was 
to  be  paid  a  per  diem  for  the  number  of  days  actually 
at  work,  provided  the  number  did  not  exceed  in  any 
year  the  average  length  of  the  school  term  plus  fifty 
per  cent  thereof.  The  average  salary  of  the  ninety-six 
county  superintendents  in  1890  was  only  $175,  and  in 
some  counties  it  was  only  $50  or  $60.  As  late  as  1899 
Wake  County  was  paying  its  superintendent  only 
$128,  after  deducting  the  small  fees  collected  for  pri- 
vate examinations.  The  counties  of  Durham,  Mecklen- 
burg, and  Buncombe  were  paying  slightly  more  than 
this,  however.  No  man  capable  of  becoming  an  effi- 
cient superintendent  could  afford  to  give  much  of  his 
time  for  the  small  compensation  which  he  received  and 
from  which  he  was  forced  to  pay  his  expenses.  Most 
of  the  superintendents  had  other  occupations,  and 
their  educational  labors  consisted  mainly  of  holding 
examinations  for  teachers  and  an  occasional  teachers' 
*  Laws  of  1895,  chap.  4S9. 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  321 

institute.  Their  work  as  county  superintendents  was, 
until  recent  years,  too  often  a  secondary  matter.  Itr 
some  cases  the  county  board  of  education  would  not 
allow  the  superintendents  to  visit  the  schools  because 
of  the  expense  of  such  service. 

Provision  for  normal  instruction  was  gradually  en- 
larging, though  many  of  the  teachers  continued  poorly 
prepared  and  inefficient.  In  addition  to  the  normal 
schools  established  in  1877,  four  additional  schools  for 
each  race  were  established  by  act  of  1881.  From  that 
year  until  1885  the  sum  of  $4000  was  annually  appro- 
priated to  train  the  teachers  of  each  race.  In  1885  the 
normal  school  established  at  Chapel  Hill  in  1877  was  dis- 
continued and  the  appropriation  used  for  similar  work 
in  schools  established  at  Asheville,  Boone,  Washing- 
ton, and  Winston;  but  the  sum  of  $4000  continued  to 
be  appropriated  annually  for  the  normal  instruction  of 
white  teachers  until  1889.  * 

About  this  time  two  young  teachers,  Charles  D.  Mc- 
Iver  and  Edwin  A.  Alderman,  names  which  were  soon 
to  become  closely  identified  with  progressive  educa- 
tional policies,  not  only  in  their  own  State  but  in  the 
entire  South,  began  to  attract  wide  attention  by  their 
interest  and  zeal  in  behalf  of  universal  education.  They 
appeared  before  the  Legislature  and  pleaded  for  more 
efficient  educational  facilities  for  the  youth  of  the  State. 
Their  earnestness  attracted  legislative  attention.  The 
numerous  normal  schools  for  white  teachers  were 
abolished  *  and  Mclver  and  Alderman  were  selected  as 

1  In  1893  the  Legislature  appropriated  $1500  to  establish  a  nor- 
mal department  in  connection  with  the  Cullowhee  High  School,  in 
Jackson  County,  and  this  or  greater  aid  has  been  annually  con- 
tinued. 

1  Laws  of  1889,  chap.  200. 


322  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

state  institute  conductors,  to  canvass  the  State,  hold 
educational  meetings,  conduct  teachers'  institutes,  and 
enlist  the  interest  of  the  public  on  the  subject  of  more 
and  better  education  for  all  the  children  of  both  races. 
For  two  years  they  went  up  and  down  the  State  teach- 
ing teachers,  organizing  educational  associations,  hold- 
ing mass  meetings,  and  preaching  the  gospel  of  universal 
education,  free  and  open  alike  to  all  classes.  The  in- 
fluence of  this  work  literally  converted  the  Farmers' 
Alliance,  which  at  that  time  was  recognized  as  an  organ- 
ization of  power  and  influence  in  the  State.  The  Legis- 
lature of  1891  was  in  large  measure  controlled  by  this 
organization  and  showed  some  liberality  toward  public 
education.  At  this  session  the  State  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial College  for  the  training  of  white  teachers  was  es- 
tablished and  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 
for  negroes  was  also  created. 

Meantime,  however,  it  appeared  impossible  to  hold 
an  annual  institute  in  every  county  in  the  State,  on  the 
fund  appropriated  by  the  Legislature,  and  the  Peabody 
Board,  through  its  efficient  agent,  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry, 
appropriated  funds  sufficient  to  employ  several  other 
institute  conductors  for  the  summer  months.  From 
July,  1889,  to  October,  1890,  more  than  135  institutes 
were  held  in  the  State,  attended  by  5775  teachers.  In 
addition  to  these,  7  institutes  for  white  and  21  for 
colored  teachers  were  held  under  an  act  of  1881  which 
gave  permission  for  county  institutes. 

Facilities  for  the  normal  instruction  of  the  negro 
teachers  of  the  State  were  also  increasing,  and  from 
1887  to  1895  the  annual  appropriations  for  that  race 
were  $8500.  From  1895  to  1897  the  appropriations  for 
the  same  purpose  were  $10,500  annually.    In  1897  the 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  823 

sum  of  $14,500  was  appropriated  for  the  professional 
preparation  of  the  negro  teachers  of  the  State,  and 
this  continued  to  be  appropriated  annually  for  several 
years. 

During  these  years  there  was  a  serious,  steady  growth 
of  sentiment  in  favor  of  public  education,  and  local 
taxation  for  schools  of  both  races  was  gradually  develop- 
ing. By  1891  graded  schools  had  been  established  in 
sixteen  towns  in  the  State  and  the  city-school  idea  was 
growing  in  popularity.  In  1887  Reidsville  and  Asheville 
voted  local  tax  and  established  graded  systems,  and  in 
1891  similar  schools  were  established  in  Concord,  States- 
ville,  Shelby,  Tarboro,  Wilson,  and  Murphy.1 

This  gradual  development  of  wholesome  educational 
sentiment  was  threatened  with  serious  arrest  in  1893, 
however.  The  financial  stringency  of  that  year  forced 
the  Farmers'  Alliance  into  politics  and  created  three 
political  parties  of  unequal  strength.  In  1894  the  negro 
held  the  balance  of  power  and  the  Populists  and  Re- 
publicans, by  fusing  their  interests,  succeeded  in  controll- 
ing the  Legislature.  Two  years  later,  by  the  same  meth- 
ods and  a  negro  vote  more  than  120,000  strong,  they  got 
complete  control  of  the  state  government  as  well  as  of 
many  counties.  The  Legislature  of  1895  resembled  the 
lawmaking  bodies  of  Reconstruction  days. 

By  "an  act  to  restore  to  the  people  of  North  Carolina 
local  self-government,"  the  system  of  county  govern- 

1  High  Point  and  Washington  established  graded  schools  in  1897, 
and  two  years  later  similar  schools  were  established  in  Newbern, 
YVaynesville,  Selma,  Kinston,  Albemarle,  Mount  Airy,  Gastonia, 
Marion,  and  Cherryville.  By  1899  graded  schools  had  been  estab- 
lished in  twenty-seven  towns  in  North  Carolina,  and  were  being 
supported  largely  by  local  taxation  or  by  aid  from  the  town  govern- 
ments. 


324    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

ment  in  use  in  the  State  at  that  time  was  completely  over- 
turned. 

Whether  so  intended  or  not,  the  new  system  turned  over  to 
negro  rule  the  chief  city  of  the  State,  several  important  towns, 
and  many  of  the  eastern  counties.  Then  the  country  saw  re- 
peated the  scenes  which  have  made  the  memory  of  Recon- 
struction a  nightmare  to  the  people  of  the  South.  Negro  poli- 
ticians, often  illiterate,  always  ignorant,  generally  corrupt, 
presided  over  the  inferior  courts,  dominated  county  school 
boards  and  district  school  committees,  and  served  as  county 
commissioners  and  city  councilmen.  They  were  found  on  the 
police  force  of  the  State's  chief  city,  they  were  made  city  attor- 
neys, and  they  were  numbered  among  county  coroners,  deputy 
sheriffs,  and  registers  of  deeds.  Lawlessness,  violence,  and  cor- 
ruption followed.  In  some  of  the  counties  the  situation  became 
unbearable,  while  in  such  towns  as  Wilmington,  Newbern,  and 
Greenville  neither  life  nor  property  nor  woman's  honor  was 
secure.1 

More  firearms  were  sold  in  the  State  in  a  year  or  two 
than  had  been  sold  for  twenty  years  preceding.  Rumors 
of  race  riots  inflamed  the  passions  of  the  people,  prop- 
erty was  burned,  and  men  went  armed  day  and  night. 
The  serious  situation  culminated  in  the  disastrous  riots 
of  Wilmington  in  1898,  when  the  mayor  and  negro  offi- 
cers were  driven  from  the  city  and  the  white  men  took 
possession  by  force.  These  alarming  conditions  threat- 
ened destruction  to  the  school  system  and  forced  the 
thoughtful  people  of  the  State  to  seek  a  safe  solution 
for  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  its  educational 
history.  Until  now  the  principle  of  special  local  taxa- 
tion was  slowly  but  gradually  growing  in  public  favor, 
but  the  bitter  political  experiences  of  those  years  caused 
a  dangerous  reaction,  and  educational  sentiment  cooled. 

1  Connor  and  Poe,  The  Life  and  Speeches  of  Charles  B.  Ay  cock, 
chap.  v. 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  325 

In  one  instance  the  local  tax  was  voted  out  and  the  vic- 
tory celebrated  with  bonfires  and  bands. 

Notwithstanding  the  unfavorable  conditions  in  the 
State  the  Legislature  of  1897  passed  one  of  the  most 
advanced  educational  laws  yet  enacted,  but  it  was 
short-lived  and  proved  ineffective.  The  act  1  was  in- 
tended to  encourage  local  taxation  for  public  schools, 
and  provided  for  an  election  to  be  held  on  the  question 
in  every  school  district.  In  every  district  which  failed 
to  vote  the  tax  in  1897  the  county  commissioners  were 
required  to  order  an  election  every  two  years  until  the 
tax  was  properly  voted.  The  law  further  provided  that 
every  district  voting  the  special  tax  should  receive  from 
the  state  board  of  education,  annually  for  three  years,  a 
sum  equal  to  the  special  school  tax  collected  in  the  district 
each  year,  provided,  however,  that  no  district  should 
receive  from  the  state  board  more  than  $500  a  year. 

The  elections  were  held  in  August,  1897,  at  a  cost  of 
more  than  $12,000,  and  eleven  townships  voted  for  the 
tax  and  raised  the  sum  of  $2260.07,  which  was  duplicated 
by  the  State.  The  law  also  provided  that,  in  case  an 
amount  should  be  raised  by  voluntary  subscription  or 
donation,  an  equal  amount  thus  raised  should  be  dupli- 
cated by  the  state  board,  and  sixty-three  communities 
raised  in  this  manner  $8596.63,  which  was  likewise  du- 
plicated. These  results  were  far  from  satisfactory  and 
were  indicative  of  gross  indifference,  and  the  act  was 
repealed  by  the  Legislature  of  1899.  The  same  Legis- 
lature, however,  appropriated  $100,000  to  be  appor- 
tioned to  the  counties  on  the  basis  of  their  school  popu- 
lation —  legislative  liberality  which  gave  renewed  hope 
and  encouragement  to  the  friends  of  education.2 

1  Laws  of  1897,  chap.  421.  •  Laws  of  1899,  chap.  637. 


S2C     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  trying  days  just  described  brought  into  promi- 
nence Charles  B.  Aycock,  a  brilliant  young  lawyer  of 
Goldsboro,  who  caught  the  public  ear  at  a  time  when 
real  educational  leadership  was  sorely  needed,  and  he 
became  the  spokesman  of  North  Carolina.  He  advo- 
cated a  constitutional  amendment  which  would  deprive 
the  negro  of  suffrage  until  by  education  and  training 
he  could  be  fitted  for  intelligent  citizenship.  Immedi- 
ately the  advocates  of  better  educational  facilities  ral- 
lied to  his  support  because  he  pleaded  so  earnestly  for 
universal  education  for  all  classes  and  races.  The  entire 
State  responded,  and  in  1900  Aycock  was  nominated 
for  governor  by  acclamation  on  a  platform  which  he  had 
made  popular  by  his  earnestness  and  eloquence  two 
years  before.  Sixty-six  of  the  ninety-seven  counties  in 
the  State  gave  majorities  for  the  amendment  to  the 
constitution,  which  eliminated  the  ignorant  negro  from 
politics,  and  Aycock  was  elected  governor  by  the  larg- 
est majority  ever  given  a  man  for  that  office  in  North 
Carolina.  This  bitterest  political  contest  which  the 
State  had  ever  witnessed  was  momentous  for  popular 
education. 

The  two  races  had  been  arrayed  in  fearful  antagonism  and 
the  elemental  passions  of  both  had  been  deeply  stirred.  The 
fires  of  race  prejudice  and  bitterness  still  smouldered  in  the 
hearts  of  thousands  and  but  the  slightest  breath  was  necessary 
to  fan  them  into  a  conflagration  of  fearful  consequences.  It 
was  a  situation  which  required  a  leader  with  a  cool  head,  a  clear 
vision,  and  a  judicious  temperament.  He  must  have  an  abun- 
dance of  patience,  wisdom,  and  charity.  He  must  be  a  cour- 
ageous man.  It  was  no  time  for  a  time-server.  He  who  would 
allay  the  apprehensions  of  the  negroes  and  check  the  passions 
of  the  whites  must  be  a  statesman.1 

1  Connor  and  Poe,  op.  cit.,  p.  90. 


ATTEMPTS  AT  READJUSTMENT  327 

Happily  for  the  cause  of  the  public  schools  North 
Carolina  now  had  such  a  leader  in  its  new  governor. 
There  was,  indeed,  a  great  sociological  problem  yet  to 
be  solved,  but  faith,  courage,  and  untiring  industry 
promised  success  in  its  solution.  A  new  and  more  hope- 
ful day  began  to  dawn  for  a  State  and  a  citizenship 
which  had  too  long  known  the  burden  of  a  bitter  wrong. 
The  educational  uplift  of  all  classes  of  both  races,  and 
the  public  schools  soon  came  to  be  regarded  too  sacred 
for  any  party  to  touch  with  unholy  hands.  This  condi- 
tion was  made  possible  through  the  wise  statesmanship 
of  North  Carolina's  "educational  governor." 

REFERENCES 

Journals  of  the  House  and  Senate;  Public  Laws  of  North 
Carolina;  Reports  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
1876-1900;  Boyd,  "Some  Phases  of  Educational  History  in 
the  South  since  1865,"  in  Studies  in  Southern  History  and 
Politics;  Proceedings  of  the  Peabody  Board  Trustees;  Report 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1904,  vol.  i ; 
Connor,  "  Thomas  Jordan  Jarvis  and  the  Rebuilding  of  North 
Carolina,"  in  Publications  of  the  North  Carolina  Historical 
Commission,  Bulletin  no.  20;  Connor  and  Poe,  The  Life  and 
Speeches  of  Charles  B.  Aycock. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  political  changes  took  place  in  the  United  States 
in  1876? 

2.  How  did  those  changes  affect  educational  conditions  in 
the  South? 

3.  What  legislative  changes  affecting  education  were  made 
about  this  time? 

4.  Why  was  the  educational  problem  in  the  South  such  a 
difficult  one  after  the  war? 

5.  How  did  educational  interest  express  itself  after  1877? 


S28    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

6.  Account  for  the  slow  educational  progress  in  North 
Carolina  between  1877  and  1900.  What  improvements 
were  made  during  these  years? 

7.  Why  were  facilities  for  normal  instruction  not  provided 
before  1877?  How  does  the  experience  of  North  Carolina 
in  this  respect  compare  with  the  experience  of  other 
Southern  States? 

8.  What  were  the  educational  services  of  Thomas  J.  Jarvis? 

9.  Name  the  superintendents  of  public  instruction  in  North 
Carolina  since  1868  and  discuss  their  educational  services. 

10.  Account  for  the  conditions  between  1895  and  1900.  What 
were  some  of  the  needs  of  the  schools  during  these  years? 

11.  How  did  the  interpretations  and  decisions  of  the  courts 
affect  education  in  the  State  before  1900? 

12.  What  was  the  actual  condition  of  public  education  in 
your  county  in  1900? 

13.  What  is  the  history  of  city  or  town  high  schools  in  your 
county? 


CHAPTER  XV 

AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  (1900-1910) 

On  a  hundred  platforms,  to  half  the  voters  of  the  State,  in 
the  late  campaign,  I  pledged  the  State,  its  strength,  its  heart, 
its  wealth,  to  universal  education.  I  promised  the  illiterate 
poor  man,  bound  to  a  life  of  toil  and  struggle  and  poverty, 
that  life  should  be  brighter  for  his  boy  and  girl  than  it  had  been 
for  him  and  the  partner  of  his  sorrows  and  joys.  I  pledged 
the  wealth  of  the  State  to  the  education  of  his  children.  Men 
of  wealth,  representatives  of  great  corporations,  applauded 
eagerly  my  declaration.  I  then  realized  that  the  strong  desire 
which  dominated  me  for  the  uplifting  of  the  whole  people 
moved  not  only  my  heart,  but  was  likewise  the  hope  and  aspi- 
ration of  those  upon  whom  Fortune  had  smiled.  .  .  .  We  are 
prospering  as  never  before  —  our  wealth  increases,  our  indus- 
tries multiply,  our  commerce  extends,  and  among  the  owners 
of  this  wealth,  this  multiplying  industry,  this  extending  com- 
merce, I  have  found  no  man  who  is  unwilling  to  make  the 
State  stronger  and  better  by  liberal  aid  to  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion. Gentlemen  of  the  Legislature,  you  will  not  have  aught 
to  fear  when  you  make  ample  provision  for  the  education  of  the 
whole  people.  .  .  .  For  my  part  I  declare  to  you  that  it  shall  be 
my  constant  aim  and  effort,  during  the  four  years  that  I  shall 
endeavor  to  serve  the  people  of  this  State,  to  redeem  this  most 
solemn  of  all  our  pledges. 

Thus  spoke  Charles  B.  Ay  cock  when  he  was  inaugu- 
rated governor  of  North  Carolina  in  January,  1901.  The 
platforms  of  all  the  political  parties  had  declared  in 
favor  of  a  liberal  policy  toward  popular  education,  and 
the  platform  of  the  Democratic  Party  in  1900  said:  — 

We  heartily  commend  the  action  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  1899  for  appropriating  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  for 
the  benefit  of  the  public  schools  of  the  State,  and  pledge  our- 


330  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

selves  to  increase  the  school  fund,  so  as  to  make  at  least  a  four 
months'  term  in  every  year  in  every  school  district  in  the  State. 

In  the  campaign  conducted  throughout  the  State 
with  so  much  earnestness  that  platform  was  made  the 
basis  of  all  promises  made  to  the  people.  And  through 
the  leadership  of  Aycock  those  promises  were  destined 
soon  to  be  completely  redeemed. 

Until  this  time,  as  we  have  seen,  there  was  much  in- 
difference on  the  subject  of  public  education :  — 

Only  thirty  districts  in  the  State,  all  urban,  considered 
education  of  sufficient  importance  to  levy  a  local  tax  for  the 
support  of  schools.  The  average  salary  paid  to  county  super- 
intendents annually  was  less  than  one  dollar  a  day,  to  public- 
school  teachers,  $91.25  for  the  term.  This  meant,  of  course, 
that  the  office  of  county  superintendent  was  either  a  "  politi- 
cal job,"  usually  given  to  some  struggling  young  attorney  for 
local  party  service,  or  a  public  charity  used  to  help  support 
the  growing  family  of  some  needy  but  deserving  preacher;  and, 
further,  that  there  were  no  professional  teachers  in  the  public 
schools.  Practically  no  interest  was  manifested  in  the  building 
or  equipment  of  schoolhouses.  The  children  of  more  than 
050  public  school  districts  were  altogether  without  school- 
houses,  while  those  in  1132  districts  sat  on  rough  pine  boards 
in  log  houses  chinked  with  clay.  Perhaps  under  all  these  cir- 
cumstances it  was  well  enough  that  the  schools  were  kept 
open  only  seventy-three  days  in  the  year,  and  that  less  than 
one  third  of  the  children  of  school  age  attended  them.  ...  To 
complicate  a  situation  already  sufficiently  difficult,  the  race 
issue  injected  its  poison  into  the  very  vitals  of  the  problem.1 

Soon  after  taking  the  oath  of  office  Governor  Aycock 
and  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  Thomas 
F.  Toon  began  a  canvass  of  the  entire  State  in  behalf 
of  its  educational  interests.  It  was  known  that  if  the 
people  were  to  be  convinced  of  the  necessity  for  better 

1  Connor  and  Poe,  The  Life  and  Speeches  of  Charles  B.  Aycock, 
pp.  114,  115. 


AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  331 

educational  facilities,  the  question  must  be  discussed 
with  them.  But  there  were  serious  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  a  complete  canvass  of  the  State.  North  Carolina  was 
large,  had  no  centers  of  population,  and  eighty  per  cent 
of  its  people  were  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and 
were  therefore  widely  scattered.  Only  a  small  part  of  the 
people  could  be  reached  except  through  a  general  cam- 
paign for  which  there  were  then  no  resources  at  hand. 
This  problem  was  soon  solved,  however,  through  the 
liberality  of  the  Southern  Education  Board,  an  organi- 
zation composed  of  educational  statesmen  and  phi- 
lanthropists for  the  promotion  of  education  in  the 
Southern  States.  This  organization  offered  $4000  an- 
nually for  financing  such  an  educational  campaign  as 
Aycock  and  the  other  friends  of  education  believed  to 
be  necessary  to  bring  relief  to  the  poor  school  conditions 
of  the  State. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Charles  D.  Mclver,  chair- 
man of  the  campaign  committee  of  the  Southern  Educa- 
tion Board,  a  convention  was  called  to  meet  in  Raleigh 
February  13,  1902.  Invitations  were  sent  to  forty-three 
educational  workers  in  the  State,  representing  all  the 
institutions  of  higher  education,  the  normal  schools, 
and  county  and  city-school  systems.  Governor  Aycock 
presided  over  the  conference,  which  met  in  his  office  for 
the  purpose  of  organizing  a  thoroughgoing  educational 
campaign  and  of  uniting  all  the  educational  forces  of  the 
State. 

There  was  but  one  man  m  the  State  who  could  have  brought 
together  all  these  warring  factions  and  accomplished  this  pur- 
pose. Him  all,  whatever  their  previous  differences  may  have 
been,  were  willing  to  follow.1 

1  Connor  and  Poe,  op.  cit.,  p.  119. 


332    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

With  this  conference  a  new  era  in  North  Carolina's 
educational  history  began.  "A  Declaration  against 
Illiteracy,"  in  the  form  of  an  address  to  the  people  of  the 
State,  was  adopted.  The  address  gave  a  plain  state- 
ment of  educational  conditions  and  urged  all  patriotic 
citizens  to  aid  in  promoting 

free  public  schools,  open  to  all,  supported  by  the  taxes  of  all 
its  citizens,  where  every  child,  regardless  of  condition  in  life, 
or  circumstances  of  fortunes,  may  receive  that  opportunity  for 
training  into  social  service  which  the  constitution  of  this  and 
other  great  States  and  the  age  demand. 

We  realize  [continued  the  declaration]  that  our  State  has 
reached  the  constitutional  limit  of  taxation  for  the  rural  schools, 
that  she  has  made  extra  appropriations  to  lengthen  the  term 
of  these  schools  to  eighty  days  in  the  year.  We  realize,  too, 
that  the  four  months'  term  now  provided  is  inadequate  for  the 
reason  that  more  than  20,000,000  children  of  school  age  in  the 
United  States  outside  of  North  Carolina  are  now  provided  an 
average  of  145  days  of  school  out  of  every  365 ;  Jthat  the  teach- 
ers of  these  children  are  paid  an  average  salary  of  $48  a  month, 
while  the  teachers  of  the  children  of  North  Carolina  are  paid 
hardly  $25  a  month,  thus  securing  for  all  the  children  of  our 
sister  States  more  efficient  training  for  the  duties  of  life.  And 
we  realize  that,  according  to  the  latest  census  report  and  the 
report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  for 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  of  its  population,  the  country  at 
large  is  spending  $2.83  for  the  education  of  its  children,  while 
North  Carolina  is  spending  barely  67  cents;  that  the  country 
at  large  is  spending  an  average  of  $20.29  for  every  pupil  enrolled 
in  its  public  schools,  while  North  Carolina  is  spending  only 
$3  or  $4,  the  smallest  amount  expended  by  any  State  in  the 
Union.  And  still  further  do  we  realize  that  the  average  amount 
spent  for  the  education  of  every  child  of  school  age  in  the 
United  States  is  approximately  $9.50,  while  North  Carolina  is 
spending  $1.78. 

The  facts  should  arouse  our  pride  and  our  patriotism,  and 
lead  us  to  inquire  whether  the  future  will  not  hold  this  genera- 
tion responsible  for  the  perpetuation  of  conditions  that  have 


AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  S33 

resulted  in  the  multiplicity  of  small  school  districts,  inferior 
schoolhouses,  poorly  paid  teachers,  and  necessarily  poor 
teaching ;  in  twenty  white  illiterates  out  of  every  one  hundred 
white  population  over  ten  years  of  age;  in  generally  poor  and 
poorly  paid  supervision  of  the  expenditure  of  our  meager  school 
funds  and  of  the  teaching  done  in  our  schools;  and,  finally,  in 
that  educational  indifference  which  is  the  chief  cause  of  the 
small  average  daily  attendance  of  about  fifty  pupils  out  of 
every  hundred  enrolled  in  our  public  schools. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  outlined  and  "The  Cen- 
tral Campaign  Committee  for  the  Promotion  of  Public 
Education  in  North  Carolina"  was  created.  The  work 
of  the  committee,  which  was  composed  of  Governor 
Aycock,  Superintendent  Toon,  and  Dr.  Mclver,  was 
to  plan  systematic  campaigns  for  local  taxation,  for  the 
consolidation  of  school  districts,  for  building  and  equip- 
ping better  schoolhouses,  and  for  longer  school  terms 
and  larger  salaries  for  teachers.  Provision  was  also  made 
for  committees  to  collect,  write,  and  distribute  to  every 
newspaper  in  the  State  weekly  articles  bearing  on  the 
matter  of  better  schools,  and  to  write  to  every  minister 
in  the  State  requesting  him  to  preach  a  sermon  on  pub- 
lic education  at  least  once  a  year.  A  few  days  later  l 
Superintendent  Toon  died  of  an  illness  contracted  while 
canvassing  the  State  in  behalf  of  improved  educational 
facilities,  and  James  Y.  Joyner,  Professor  of  English  in 
the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College,  was  appointed 
as  his  successor.  Dr.  Joyner  was  eminently  qualified  by 
nature  and  training  to  direct  the  public-school  system 
of  the  State,  and  its  growth  since  1902  has  in  great 
part  been  due  to  his  wise  leadership. 

The  following  June  the  Central  Committee  opened 
headquarters  in  the  state  superintendent's  office,  and 
February  19,  1002. 


334     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Superintendent  Eugene  C.  Brooks,  of  the  Monroe  City 
Schools,  was  appointed  executive  secretary  to  conduct 
the  campaign.  Though  a  young  man,  Mr.  Brooks  was 
rapidly  becoming  recognized  as  a  wise  and  progressive 
school  man,  and  to  his  new  work  he  brought  rare  in- 
dustry, resourcefulness,  sound  judgment,  and  earnest- 
ness which  were  soon  to  place  him  in  the  foremost 
ranks  of  educational  leadership  in  North  Carolina. 
The  campaign  which  was  to  lift  the  State  from  its  low 
educational  position  was  thus  launched.  Through  the 
leadership  and  under  the  inspiration  of  Aycock,  Joy- 
ner,  Mclver,  and  Brooks  a  genuine  educational  revival 
began  which  has  continued  even  to  the  present.  Men 
of  every  profession  and  business,  of  every  political  faith 
and  religious  belief,  gladly  volunteered  their  services 
in  one  of  the  most  inspiring  and  effective  educational 
campaigns  ever  witnessed  in  any  State. 

In  open-air  meetings,  in  courthouses,  in  churches,  in  school- 
houses,  wherever  the  people  could  assemble,  they  gathered 
to  hear  the  most  effective  orators  and  debaters  in  the  State 
discuss  educational  problems  and  policies.  For  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  North  Carolina  ^politics  yielded  first  place  in 
public  interest  to  education.1 

The  first  rally  was  held  at  Wentworth,  in  Rocking- 
ham County,  with  Thomas  J.  Jarvis  and  Dr.  Charles  D. 
Mclver  as  speakers.  More  than  one  hundred  school 
committeemen  and  every  teacher  in  the  county,  besides 
hundreds  of  other  citizens,  were  present.  A  press  dis- 
patch, after  describing  the  interest  manifested  by  the 
audience,  said  of  the  address  of  ex-Governor  Jarvis:  — 

For  two  hours  this  most  gifted  and  honored  of  all  North 
Carolina's  most  illustrious  sons  held  the  large  audience  spell- 

1  Connor  and  Poe,  op.  cit.,  p.  122. 


AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  335 

bound.  At  times  his  plea  was  pathetic  and  few  could  resist  it; 
at  times  his  flight  of  eloquence  was  soul-stirring  as  he  warmed 
to  his  subject  and  pleaded  for  the  education  of  the  children  of 
the  State.  Few  of  those  who  heard  him  will  ever  forget  this 
closing  thought:  that  he  was  an  old  man,  that  his  face  was 
turned  toward  the  setting  sun,  that  never  again  would  he 
solicit  suffrage  of  the  State  for  himself,  that  in  all  probability 
he  would  never  again  address  a  Rockingham  audience,  that 
he  loved  the  State  above  the  power  of  expression,  that  it  had 
honored  him  more  than  he  deserved,  that  he  wanted  his  au- 
dience to  know  that  his  parting  injunction  was  to  keep  the 
churches  and  schoolhouses  open.  Do  this,  and  the  future  will 
be  glorious;  neglect  it,  and  we  go  back  to  barbarism. 

In  the  afternoon  Dr.  Mclver  spoke  on  local  taxation 
and  the  consolidation  of  districts,  in  a  practical,  strong, 
and  convincing  manner.  This  first  rally  of  the  cam- 
paign was  typical  of  scores  of  others  held  during  the 
summer  of  1902. 

In  March  of  the  following  year  plans  were  made  for 
another  summer's  work  similar  to  but  more  extensive 
than  the  first.  By  June,  seventy-eight  of  the  ninety- 
seven  counties  of  the  State  had  planned  educational 
rallies  in  connection  with  the  township  meetings  which 
were  legally  required  of  the  school  officers.  This  almost 
universal  response  greatly  impressed  the  people  of  the 
State.  The  press,  already  strong  for  educational  pro- 
gress, now  became  stronger  and  more  earnest  in  its  behalf. 
Public  men  of  every  calling  again  offered  their  services, 
many  refusing  to  accept  their  traveling  expenses.  Su- 
perior court  judges  instructed  grand  juries  to  report 
on  the  condition  of  school-buildings.  Never  before 
had  interest  in  public  education  in  North  Carolina  so 
reflected  itself.  By  the  close  of  the  campaign  in  the 
fall,  when  many  of  the  teachers  and  college  men  who  had 
been  engaged  in  it  were  called  back  to  their  work,  more 


336    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

than  350  rallies  had  been  held  in  addition  to  the  regular 
township  meetings  conducted  by  the  county  superin- 
tendents. Seventy-eight  counties  had  been  reached, 
local  tax  districts  had  increased  from  56  to  181,  more 
than  300  districts  had  been  abolished  by  consolidation, 
and  676  new  schoolhouses  had  been  built. 

The  campaign  was  carried  on  without  cessation  by 
bulletins,  through  the  press  of  the  State,  and  by  public 
speakers.  The  state  officers  used  all  the  time  they  could 
spare  from  their  duties  for  field  work  in  behalf  of  the 
cause  which  had  grown  so  strong  in  popular  favor. 
There  was  a  universal  quickening  of  the  public  mind  — 
the  question  of  education  for  all  the  people  seemed  to 
revive  everywhere.  The  Southern  Education  Board 
continued  its  generous  aid  of  the  campaign  work  and 
other  agencies  lent  support  to  the  great  movement. 
"The  Woman's  Association  for  the  Betterment  of  Pub- 
lic Schoolhouses  and  Grounds,"  an  organization  formed 
at  the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College  in  1902, 
after  Dr.  Mclver  had  called  the  attention  of  the  women 
of  the  State  to  the  conditions  of  the  schoolhouses, 
rendered  especially  valuable  service  in  cultivating  a 
wholesome  public  sentiment  toward  their  improvement. 

These  public  campaigns  between  1902  and  J/904  stimu- 
lated an  even  more  powerful  though  quieter  campaign 
which  has  continued  uninterrupted.  Said  Superintend- 
ent Joyner  in  December,  1904:  — 

I  weigh  my  words  when  I  declare  it  to  be  my  deliberate  con- 
viction that  the  great  masses  of  the  people  in  North  Carolina 
are  interested  as  never  before  in  this  question  of  the  education 
of  their  children,  that  they  are  talking  about  it  among  them- 
selves more  than  ever  before,  and  that  a  deep-seated  convic- 
tion and  a  quiet  determination  that  their  children  shall  be 
educated  are  finding  surer  lodgment  in  the  minds  and  hearts 


AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  SS7 

of  the  people  than  ever  before.  This  is,  to  my  mind,  one  of  the 
most  significant  evidences  of  progress.  Mighty  revolutions  are 
always  noiseless  and  must  be  wrought  first  in  the  minds  and 
hearts  and  wills  of  the  masses.  I  believe  that  such  a  revolu- 
tion upon  this  question  of  the  education  of  all  the  people  is 
well  under  way  in  North  Carolina. 

A  growth  in  sentiment  for  public  education  and  in 
confidence  in  the  public  schools  was  everywhere  notice- 
able. Moreover,  there  was  a  marked  increase  during 
the  first  decade  of  the  century  in  the  enrollment  in  the 
institutions  of  higher  education  and  in  the  private 
schools  and  academies  of  the  State. 

Legislative  action  during  this  period  is  another  evi- 
dence of  the  revival  that  was  taking  place  in  education 
in  the  State  when  many  forward  educational  steps  were 
taken.  The  annual  legislative  appropriations,  which 
were  first  made  in  1899,  when  $100,000  was  distributed 
to  the  counties  of  the  State  in  order  to  lengthen  the 
school  term,  have  been  liberally  continued.  From  1901 
to  1908  these  sums  amounted  to  $200,000  annually. 
Since  that  time  they  have  gradually  increased  until 
they  now  amount  to  $250,000  annually.  Since  1901  the 
Legislature  has  also  made  liberal  provision  for  estab- 
lishing rural  libraries,  and  there  are  now  nearly  4000 
such  libraries  in  the  State.  More  than  half  the  districts, 
both  white  and  colored,  are  now  provided  with  them,  and 
they  are  constantly  being  established  in  others.  During 
the  biennial  period  closing  June  30,  1914,  more  than  500 
new  and  347  supplemental  libraries  were  established,  at 
a  cost  of  more  than  $20,000,  and  containing  an  average 
of  nearly  one  hundred  volumes  of  well-selected  books.1 

1  Statistics  given  in  this  chapter  are  of  the  biennial  period  closing 
June  30,  1914,  unless  otherwise  stated. 


338    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

In  1901  the  Legislature  set  apart  one  day  in  each 
year,  to  be  known  as  "North  Carolina  Day,"  for  the 
consideration  of  the  history  of  the  State  by  the  public 
schools.  Through  the  aid  of  members  of  the  State  Liter- 
ary and  Historical  Association  and  other  patriotic  citi- 
zens of  the  State,  the  department  of  education  has  been 
able  to  prepare  and  issue  in  attractive  pamphlet  form 
interesting  programs  dealing  with  the  history  of  North 
Carolina.  The  articles  thus  prepared  and  distributed 
have  dealt  with  the  past  history  of  various  sections  of 
the  State,  the  lives  of  noteworthy  leaders,  the  present 
resources  of  the  State,  and  other  subjects  which  tend  to 
awaken  in  the  present  generation  an  interest  and  pride 
in  the  history  of  North  Carolina,  and  to  inspire  confi- 
dence in  its  future.  The  annual  celebrating  of  "North 
Carolina  Day,"  when  children,  patrons,  teachers,  and 
school  officers  gather  at  the  schoolhouse,  has  helped  to 
stimulate  a  literary  and  historical  spirit  among  the  peo- 
ple of  the  State. 

The  reorganization  of  the  old  literary  fund  in  1903, 
when  $200,000  was  set  aside  as  a  permanent  fund  to 
be  known  as  the  "State  Literary  Fund,"  and  to  be  used 
as  a  loan  fund  for  building  and  improving  schoolhouses, 
was  another  forward  legislative  step.  The  fund  has 
gradually  grown  and  has  been  the  means  of  greatly 
improving  the  physical  equipment  of  more  than  one 
fifth  of  the  schools  in  the  State.  Since  its  establishment 
sums  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  more  than  one 
million  dollars  have  been  lent  to  communities  in  prac- 
tically every  county  for  the  purpose  of  building  new 
or  improving  old  schoolhouses.  Seventy-nine  counties 
were  aided  by  the  fund  during  the  biennial  period  clos- 
ing June  30,  1914;  and  the  total  value  of  houses  built 


AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  839 

or  improved  by  this  aid  during  that  time  was  nearly 
$800,000. x 

Legislative  attention  to  the  state  department  of  edu- 
cation has  also  been  a  significant  means  of  increasing 
the  efficiency  of  public  education  in  North  Carolina. 
Until  1903  the  superin tendency  of  public  education  in 
North  Carolina  was  little  more  than  a  poorly  paid  clerk- 
ship, and  had  been  so  since  the  early  seventies.  This 
unfortunate  condition  was  produced  by  the  reaction  to 
fraud  and  extravagance  practiced  in  the  name  of  edu- 
cation during  the  Reconstruction  period.  But  in  1903 
the  salary  of  the  superintendent  was  increased  and  ap- 
propriations were  made  to  make  his  department  equal  in 
dignity  and  equipment  to  the  other  departments  of  the 
state  government.  Unlimited  authority  was  given  the 
superintendent  to  issue  at  public  expense  bulletins  on 
educational  topics,  such  as  local  taxation,  consolidation 
of  districts,  improvement  of  schoolhouses,  and  like  sub- 
jects. These  bulletins  have  been  distributed  in  large 
quantities  and  sent  into  every  district  in  the  State, 
and  have  rendered  incalculable  educational  service. 

In  1905  the  State  Association  of  County  Superintend- 
ents was  legalized  and  the  counties  required  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  the  superintendents  while  in  attendance. 
The  school  term  was  equalized  throughout  the  several 
counties  and  state  aid  was  withdrawn  from  any  counties 
which  were  careless  in  levying  the  authorized  school 
taxes.  The  state  board  of  education  was  empowered 
to  consolidate  into  five  the  seven  normal  schools  for 
negro  teachers,  and  Mr.  Charles  L.  Coon,  one  of  the 
foremost  school  men  of  the  State,  was  engaged  to  su- 
perintend their  work. 

1  See  chap.  vn. 


340    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

During  the  period  under  discussion  the  Appalachian 
Training  School  was  established  at  Boone,  and  the  East 
Carolina  Teachers'  Training  School  at  Greenville,  and 
liberal  legislative  appropriations  were  made  for  their 
maintenance.  Improvement  was  also  made  in  provisions 
for  institutes,  and  other  means  of  training  public-school 
teachers  while  in  service.  Improvement  has  likewise 
been  made  in  the  compulsory-school  law  and  in  child- 
labor  legislation,  though  there  is  at  both  of  these  points 
room  for  more  improvement.  In  1907  the  Legislature 
authorized  the  establishment  of  rural  high  schools  and 
appropriated  $45,000  annually  for  their  maintenance. 
This  appropriation  was  increased  to  $50,000  in  1909  and 
to  $75,000  annually  two  years  later.  The  development 
of  rural  secondary  education  in  North  Carolina  since 
that  time  has  been  rapid*  Between  1907  and  1911  more 
than  two  hundred  rural  high  schools  were  established  in 
ninety-three  counties,  supported  by  local  taxation,  state 
appropriation,  county  apportionment,  and  private  dona- 
tions. Many  of  these  schools  had  a  four-year  course. 

Progress  in  rural  elementary  education  for  the  decade 
from  1901  to  1910  was  also  conspicuous.  During  that 
time  the  annual  expenditures  for  this  part  of  the  school 
system  increased  from  $1,018,000  to  more  than  $2,126,- 
000;  the  average  term  was  increased  nearly  a  school 
month;  the  value  of  rural  school  property  was  increased 
from  $1,146,000  to  $3,094,000;  more  than  3450  new 
schoolhouses  were  built  between  1902  and  1910,  an 
average  of  more  than  one  a  day  for  every  day  in  the 
year;  expenditures  for  teachers'  salaries  doubled;  enroll- 
ment increased  22  per  cent,  and  the  average  daily  at- 
tendance 41  per  cent.  The  expenditures  for  the  salaries 
of  county  superintendents  increased  from  $23,000  to 


AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  341 

$78,000,  and  the  average  annual  salary  paid  these  of- 
ficers increased  from  $243  to  $796.  The  number  of  spe- 
cial local  tax  districts  increased  from  18  to  1167;  rural 
teachers  increased  from  7971  to  9440,  and  rural  libraries 
increased  from  472  to  2272.  These  libraries  contained 
265,000  volumes  costing  nearly  $100,000.  The  number 
of  schools  having  more  than  one  teacher  also  annually 
increased.  There  was  likewise  noticeable  progress  in 
school  equipment;  in  1910  more  than  2000  schoolhouses 
were  equipped  with  modern  furniture. 

Through  the  generosity  of  the  Peabody  Board  and  the 
Southern  Education  Board,  there  was  added  to  the 
state  department  of  education  a  supervisor  of  rural  ele- 
mentary schools,  who  gave  his  entire  time  to  assisting 
teachers,  county  superintendents,  and  local  officers  in 
further  improvement  of  the  country  schools.  A  super- 
visor of  teacher-training  was  also  added  to  the  depart- 
ment, to  give  directions  to  county  institutes,  county 
teachers'  associations,  and  teachers'  reading-circles. 
In  this  way  the  professional  training  of  teachers  while  in 
service  was  greatly  improved.  There  was  also  a  marked 
improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  the  normal  schools,  and 
corresponding  progress  in  high-school  work,  both  city 
and  rural,  during  these  years.  The  number  of  towns 
and  cities  establishing  schools  between  1901  and  1910 
increased  from  42  to  118;  and  city  school  property  in 
1910  was  double  the  value  of  the  total  school  property 
of  the  State  ten  years  before. 

During  the  decade  here  considered  illiteracy  was 
greatly  reduced.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  among 
the  white  population  above  ten  years  of  age  was  reduced 
from  19.4  to  12.3,  and  among  the  negroes  from  47.6  to 
31.9.  Among  both  races  it  was  decreased  from  28.7  to 


342    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

18.5.  Other  Southern  States  showed  a  greater  reduction 
of  illiteracy  among  the  negroes  during  these  years,  but 
no  State  in  the  Union  surpassed  North  Carolina  in  the 
reduction  of  white  illiteracy.1 

This  great  change  in  concrete  educational  results  and, 
what  is  even  more  important,  in  public  sentiment  for  im- 
proved educational  conditions,  was  due  in  large  meas- 
ure to  the  momentum  given  the  cause  by  Aycock  and 
his  devoted  and  tireless  co-laborers,  Joyner,  Mclver, 
and  Brooks.  Aycock's  modesty  would  not  allow  him  to 
lay  claim  to  his  just  share  of  the  credit  of  the  marvelous 
educational  awakening  which  the  State  experienced 
during  the  early  years  of  the  present  century.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  that  while  the  revival  was  gaining 
force  "he  was  the  leader  of  the  State  which  was  itself 
the  leader  of  the  South."  This  leadership  gave  him  a 
wide  reputation,  and  his  services  as  an  educational  cam- 
paigner were  sought  from  "Maine  to  Alabama,  from 
North  Carolina  to  Oklahoma."  He  made  a  tour  of 
Maine  in  1904,  on  the  invitation  of  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  of  that  State;  and  he  was  deliver- 
ing his  famous  speech  on  "Universal  Education"  to 
a  large  and  enthusiastic  audience  in  Birmingham,  Ala- 
bama, April  4,  1914,  when  he  fell  dead. 

Ay  cock's  philosophy  of  education  was  simple :  he  be- 
lieved in  "educating  everybody  and  educating  every- 
thing." This  creed  made  him  the  negro's  best  and  most 
active  educational  advocate,  although  he  labored  to 
disfranchise  the  black  man  until  the  latter  could  qualify 
for  intelligent  participation  in  political  affairs.  A  con- 
spicuous illustration  of  his  sense  of  right  and  justice 
on  the  question  of  negro  education  was  his  firm  stand 
1  Connor  and  Poe,  op.  cii.,  p.  138. 


AYCOCK  AND  THE  REVIVAL  343 

against,  and  final  defeat  of,  a  movement  to  amend  the 
constitution  so  as  to  make  provision  for  distributing 
school  taxes  to  each  race  in  proportion  to  the  amounts 
paid  by  each.  He  regarded  such  an  amendment  both 
unjust  and  dangerous  and  a  gross  violation  of  his  solemn 
pledge  that  all  the  people  of  both  races  should  be  given 
improved  educational  facilities.  Like  another  great 
apostle  of  democracy  and  education,  Aycock  had  great 
faith  in  the  mass  of  the  people;  and  like  Jefferson  he 
believed  that  they  meant  well  and  would  act  well  when- 
ever they  understood.  His  labor  in  their  behalf  will 
continue  an  inspiration  and  a  blessing  to  the  future  gen- 
erations of  the  State  for  whose  advancement  he  gave 
such  noble  and  unstinted  service. 


344    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 


REFERENCES 

Public  Laws  of  North  Carolina,  1899  to  1911;  Biennial 
Reports  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
1898  to  1912;  Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  1898-1912;  North  Carolina  Education 
(E.  C.  Brooks,  editor),  vols,  i  to  x;  Connor  and  Poe,  The  Life 
and  Speeches  of  Charles  B.  Ay  cock;  Brooks, "  The  Development 
of  Public  Education  in  North  Carolina"  (unpublished  manu- 
script) ;  Murphy,  The  Present  South;  Boyd,  "  Some  Phases  of 
Educational  History  in  the  South  since  1865/*  in  Studies  in 
Southern  History  and  Politics. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Compare  educational  conditions  in  North  Carolina  in 
1860  and  in  1900. 

2.  What  were  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  educational  im- 
provement in  the  State  in  1900? 

3.  In  what  way  was  Aycock  the  leader  in  the  revival  be- 
tween 1900  and  1904? 

4.  What  other  forces  were  at  work  during  those  years?  How 
did  the  movement  continue? 

5.  Account  for  educational  indifference  in  the  State  at  that 
time. 

6.  What  educational  progress  did  the  State  make  between 
1900  and  1910? 

7.  What  improvements  were  made  in  your  county  during 
that  decade? 

8.  Compare  this  period  with   the  period  under  Wiley's 
leadership  before  the  war. 

9.  Read  Aycock's  speech  on  "Universal  Education"  and 
note  the  educational  philosophy  which  it  contains. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM:  ITS  TASKS  AND 
TENDENCIES 

The  momentum  given  educational  development  in 
North  Carolina  through  the  campaigns  described  in  the 
preceding  chapter  has  continued  uninterrupted.  The 
questions  of  local  taxation,  the  consolidation  of  schools, 
and  of  improvement  in  teachers,  continue  to  be  agi- 
tated through  bulletins  issued  by  the  state  department 
of  education,  through  the  press,  and  through  numerous 
other  effective  means.  Much  of  the  state  superintend- 
ent's time,  as  well  as  the  time  of  members  of  his  staff, 
is  given  to  field  work  and  to  educational  campaign  work 
throughout  the  State.  And  in  many  counties  enthusi- 
astic and  energetic  county  superintendents  cany  on 
continuously  active  and  effective  campaigns  for  school 
improvement.  Their  work,  which  is  also  assisted  by  the 
more  enterprising  and  devoted  teachers  and  public- 
spirited  citizens,  is  promoted  by  public  addresses,  com- 
munity meetings,  circular  letters,  bulletins,  and  by 
numerous  other  means;  and,  to  quote  Superintendent 
Joyner,  "  the  most  effective  part  of  this  campaign  is  that 
carried  on  from  year's  end  to  year's  end,  without  blare 
of  trumpets,  in  the  county,  under  the  direction  of  effi- 
cient county  superintendents  of  common  sense  and  con- 
secration." Indeed,  the  county  is  now  the  strategic 
point  in  the  State's  educational  system. 

Present  educational  growth  appears  in  improved 
legislative  action,  in  an  increase  in  available  funds 


846    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

and  expenditures  for  public-school  support,  in  an  in- 
crease of  public-school  property,  of  local  tax  districts 
and  funds  raised  by  local  taxation,  and  an  increase  in  the 
school  term  and  in  attendance.  There  has  also  been 
considerable  improvement  in  teachers'  institutes  and 
in  other  facilities  for  the  professional  training  of  teach- 
ers while  in  service.  Improvement  likewise  appears  in 
county  supervision,  and  in  the  adaptation  of  the  work 
of  the  country  school  to  the  everyday  needs  of  the 
country  people. 

Through  some  important  educational  legislation, 
enacted  in  the  State  in  recent  years,  means  have  been 
created  for  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  public- 
school  system  of  the  State.  One  of  the  most  important 
pieces  of  recent  legislation  is  the  act  of  March,  1913, 
which  provides  for  a  six  months'  school  term.  By  the 
provisions  of  this  act  the  "state  equalizing  fund"  was 
created  by  setting  aside  "annually  five  cents  of  the  an- 
nual ad-valorem  tax  levied  and  collected  for  state  pur- 
poses on  every  one  hundred  dollars'  value  of  real  and 
personal  property  in  this  State."  The  fund  thus  de^ 
rived  is  used  exclusively  to  pay  the  salaries  of  teachers, 
to  lengthen  the  school  term,  and  to  bring  the  term  in 
every  school  district  of  the  State  to  an  equal  length  of 
a  minimum  of  six  months  or  as  near  thereto  as  the  in- 
creased funds  will  provide.  In  appropriating  the  equal- 
izing fund  no  account  is  taken  of  local  tax  funds  in  the 
county;  and  in  order  to  participate  in  its  distribution  a 
county  must  first  provide,  with  its  own  funds,  a  school 
term  of  at  least  four  months,  and  is  required,  in  order 
to  provide  this  minimum  term,  to  levy  a  special  prop- 
erty tax  of  as  much  as  fifteen  cents  on  the  hundred 
dollars'  valuation  and  a  capitation  tax  of  forty-five 


THE   PRESENT   SYSTEM  347 

cents.  When  a  county  has  complied  with  these  require- 
ments it  is  entitled  to  receive  appropriations  from  the 
equalizing  fund.  The  additional  tax  levied  by  this  act 
has  made  it  possible  to  appropriate  the  sum  of  $250,000 
annually  to  be  distributed  per  capita  to  the  public 
schools  of  the  State. 

The  same  Legislature  passed  an  improved  compul- 
sory-attendance act.  All  children  between  eight  and 
twelve  years  of  age  are  required  by  this  law  to  attend 
school  at  least  four  months  each  year.  Parents  are  re- 
quired to  send  their  children  to  school  and  are  subject 
to  punishment  for  violating  the  provisions  of  the  act. 
Attendance  officers  are  appointed  by  the  county  board 
of  education,  and  teachers  are  required  to  cooperate 
with  them  in  the  enforcement  of  the  law.  The  county 
board  of  education  is  given  power  "to  make  such  rules 
and  regulations  as  they  may  deem  best  to  secure  the 
attendance  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  eight  and 
twelve  years  upon_schools  of  the  county."  The  act 
exempts  children  whose  physical  or  mental  condition 
renders  their  "attendance  impracticable  or  inexpedi- 
ent"; those  who  reside  "two  and  one  half  miles  or 
more"  from  the  schoolhouse;  those  whose  services, 
"because  of  extreme  poverty,"  are  needed  for  their  own 
support  or  the  support  of  their  parents;  and  those  who 
are  without  the  necessary  books  and  clothes  for  attend- 
ing school  and  are  unable  to  provide  them. 

Another  act  of  great  educational  importance  passed 
in  1913  is  the  "act  to  regulate  and  restrict  labor  in 
manufacturing  establishments."  By  the  provisions  of 
this  act  no  child  under  twelve  years  of  age  can  be 
employed  in  any  factory  except  in  the  capacity  of 
an  apprentice,  "and  only  then  after  having  attended 


348    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

school  four  months  in  the  preceding  twelve  months." 
The  employment  of  persons  under  sixteen  years  of  age 
"in  any  mill,  factory,  or  manufacturing  establish- 
ment," between  9  p.  m.  and  6  a.  m.,  is  also  forbidden. 

Another  advanced  legislative  step  was  the  act  pro- 
viding for  the  establishment  of  farm-life  schools.  This 
step  was  first  taken  in  1911,  when  the  Legislature  passed 
an  act  to  promote  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and 
domestic  science  in  the  public  high  schools  of  Guilford 
County.  Two  years  later  the  law  was  made  to  apply  to 
any  county  in  the  State  which  complied  with  its  pro- 
visions. Any  county  which  provides  the  required  equip- 
ment and  an  annual  maintenance  fund  equal  to  the 
amount  appropriated  from  the  State,  receives  from  the 
State  an  annual  appropriation  not  to  exceed  $2500  for 
instruction  in  agricultural  subjects,  sewing,  cooking, 
household  economics,  and  other  similar  subjects,  in  con- 
nection with  one  or  more  of  its  rural  high  schools.1 

Any  school"  which  applies  for  the  benefit  of  this  pro- 
vision must  first  provide  a  building  with  suitable  recita- 
tion rooms,  laboratories,  and  apparatus  necessary  for 
efficient  instruction  in  the  subjects  prescribed  and  such 
dormitory  facilities  as  the  county  board  of  education 
may  require.  A  farm  of  "not  less  than  ten  acres  of  good 
arable  land,"  situated  near  the  school,  must  also  be 
provided,  and  both  the  site  and  the  equipment  must  be 
approved  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. No  part  of  the  funds  for  the  annual  maintenance 
or  equipment  of  these  schools  is  allowed  to  come  from 
the  regular  school  funds  of  the  county  until  such  funds 
are  sufficient  to  maintain  a  minimum  school  term  of  six 

1  This  type  of  school  is  discussed  more  fully  below  in  connection 
with  a  discussion  of  public  high  schools. 


THE   PRESENT  SYSTEM  349 

months  in  the  county.  The  cooperation  and  often  the 
sacrifice  of  the  communities  in  which  such  schools  are 
established  are  significant  evidence  of  widespread  inter- 
est in  the  movement  which  looks  to  furnishing  a  more 
adequate  training  for  the  country  youth,  "and  of  the 
faith  of  the  country  people  in  a  sort  of  education  and 
school  that  can  and  will  provide  better  preparation  for 
more  profitable,  more  comfortable,  more  healthful,  more 
joyous,  and  more  contented  living  in  the  country."  The 
courses  of  study  of  such  schools  are  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  state  superintendent,  and  the  teachers 
must  show  "satisfactory  evidence  of  a  liberal  English 
education,  and  in  addition  thereto  special  preparation 
and  fitness  for  the  specific  branches  to  be  taught/'  and 
they  must  also  hold  a  high-school  teacher's  certificate  in 
all  required  subjects  except  Greek,  Latin,  and  modern 
languages. 

An  act  to  permit  counties,  townships,  and* certain 
school  districts  to  issue  bonds  to  build  schoolhouses;  an 
act  to  authorize  the  aldermen  or  other  governing  officials 
of  towns  and  cities  to  issue  bonds,  upon  approval  by  a 
vote  of  the  people,  for  purchasing  sites  and  erecting 
buildings  for  school  purposes;  an  act  allowing  women  to 
serve  on  school  committees  under  the  same  conditions 
and  restrictions  as  are  now  imposed  on  men;  and  an  act 
to  provide  for  the  establishment  of  county  farm-life 
schools,  are  among  other  advanced  legislative  steps 
taken  in  recent  years  to  promote  the  educational  de- 
velopment of  the  State. 

As  a  result  of  new  and  improved  legislation,  and  of 
interest  and  enthusiasm  which  began  during  the 
Aycock  campaigns,  notable  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  development  of  education  in  North  Carolina  in 


350    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

recent  years.  This  progress  appears  in  numerous  ways. 
Nearly  $6,000,000  was  spent  for  public-school  education 
in  the  State  during  the  scholastic  year  ending  June  30, 
1914,  an  increase  of  more  than  $1,000,000  over  the 
previous  year.  Of  this  amount  about  $4,000,000  was 
for  rural  and  $2,000,000  for  urban  schools.  The  total 
amount  raised  by  county  and  local  district  taxation  for 
public  schools  in  1914  was.  more  than  $4,000,000,  an 
increase  of  more  than  $600,000  over  1912.  During  the 
biennial  period  ending  June  30,  1914,  nearly  200  local 
tax  districts  were  established  by  voluntary  vote  of  the 
people  in  villages  and  rural  communities,  an  average  of 
nearly  two  a  week  during  the  two  years.  On  June  30, 
1914,  there  were  1629  such  districts  in  the  State.  All  the 
counties  of  the  State  now  (1916)  have  from  one  to  sixty 
local  tax  districts,  and  more  than  twenty-two  per  cent 
of  the  entire  school  fund  is  raised  in  this  manner. 

Progress  in  the  building,  improving,  and  equipping 
schoolhouses  has  also  continued.  During  the  biennial 
period  ending  June  30,  1914,  more  than  800  new  rural 
schoolhouses  were  built  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $800,000, 
an  average  of  more  than  one  schoolhouse  for  every  day, 
a  rate  of  building  which  has  been  maintained  for  more 
than  twelve  years.  These  houses  were  built  according 
to  modern  plans  prepared  by  expert  architects  and  ap- 
proved by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. Three  fifths  of  all  the  schoolhouses  in  North 
Carolina  have  been  built  anew  or  rebuilt  since  1902. 
Along  with  this  improvement  in  schoolhouses  there  has 
gone  a  corresponding  improvement  in  school  furniture 
and  equipment.  During  the  biennial  period  ending 
June  30,  1914,  more  than  $313,000  was  spent  for  furni- 
ture and  equipment  in  rural  schools.  At  the  close  of  that 


THE  PRESENT   SYSTEM  351 

period  more  than  3400  rural  schoolhouses  were  equipped 
with  modern  furniture.  There  were  reported  at  that 
time,  however,  about  165  log  schoolhouses  and  more 
than  3000  rural  schoolhouses  were  reported  furnished 
with  home-made  desks.  The  total  value  of  the  public- 
school  property  of  the  State  in  1914  was  more  than 
$9,000,000;  rural  school  property  was  valued  at  more 
than  $5,000,000  and  city  school  property  at  more  than 
$4,000,000.  This  was  an  increase  over  1912  of  more  than 
$1,600,000. 

Largely  as  a  result  of  the  equalizing  fund  and  the 
compulsory-attendance  act,  marked  improvement  has 
recently  appeared  in  enrollment,  average  attendance, 
and  in  the  length  of  the  school  term.  The  school  popula- 
tion in  1914  was  525,000  white  and  253,000  colored. 
The  enrollment  for  the  same  year  was  409,000  white  and 
189,000  colored,  which  was  75,000  more  than  in  1912, — 
white  children  38,000  and  colored  children  37,000.  The 
school  population  increased  during  these  years  only 
16,000.  The  increase  in  average  daily  attendance  during 
this  biennial  period  was  75,000,  —  white  children  about 
46,000,  and  colored  children  about  29,000.  During  this 
period  there  was  an  increase  in  the  average  term  of  the 
rural  white  schools  of  17.8  days  and  of  the  rural  colored 
schools  of  19.3  days.  The  average  public-school  term  of 
the  entire  State  in  1914  was  about  122  days.  There  has 
been  a  notable  increase  in  the  number  of  rural  teachers 
and  in  their  average  annual  salary.  The  total  number  of 
white  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  of  the  State  in  1914 
was  8344.  Of  this  number  6357  held  first-grade  certif- 
icates, and  1884  and  103  held  second-  and  third-grade 
certificates,  respectively.  More  than  3500  had  normal 
training,  and  more  than  1250  held  college  diplomas.  In 


352    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  same  year  2650  colored  teachers  were  employed  in 
rural  schools.  Of  this  number  888  held  first-grade  cer- 
tificates, and  1706  and  56  held  second-  and  third-grade 
certificates,  respectively.  More  than  1300  had  normal 
training,  and  366  held  college  diplomas.  The  average 
monthly  salary  paid  rural  white  teachers  in  1914  was 
$40.74,  and  colored  teachers  received  $24.69.  The 
average  monthly  salary  paid  all  public-school  teachers 
in  the  State  in  that  year  was  $39.81. 

The  State  also  has  numerous  agencies  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  and  for  their  professional  training  while 
in  service.  The  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College  at 
Greensboro,  established  in  1891,  and  the  East  Carolina 
Teachers'  Training  School  at  Greenville,  established  in 
1907,  are  the  largest  institutions  supported  by  the 
State  for  the  normal  instruction  of  white  teachers.  The 
Cullowhee  Normal  School  at  Cullowhee  has,  since  1893, 
been  receiving  state  support  for  the  training  of  young 
men  and  women  for  teaching  in  the  rural  and  village 
elementary  schools.  In  1903  the  Legislature  established, 
for  the  counties  of  Alleghany,  Ashe,  Watauga,  Mitchell, 
Yancey,  Caldwell,  and  Wilkes,  a  school  for  the  training 
of  public-school  teachers  and  has  made  liberal  appropria- 
tions for  its  maintenance  since  that  time.1  All  of  these 
institutions  have  rendered  noteworthy  service  in  pro- 
moting the  educational  development  of  the  State.  The 
Peabody  School  of  Education  of  the  state  university 
is  doing  highly  creditable  work,  a  school  of  education 
has  been  maintained  at  Trinity  College  since  1910,  and 
practically  all  other  private  institutions  of  collegiate 
rank  in  the  State  are  giving  courses  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers. 

There  are  three  normal  schools  for  negroes  in  the 
1  See  pp.  339,  340. 


THE   PRESENT  SYSTEM  853 

State  —  the  State  Colored  Normal  School  at  Elizabeth 
City,  the  State  Colored  Normal  School  at  Fayetteville, 
and  the  Slater  Industrial  and  State  Normal  School  at 
Winston-Salem.  These  institutions  are  supported  by 
state  and  local  funds  and  appropriations  from  the  Slater 
Fund,  which  fund  has  been  of  great  service  to  negro  edu- 
cation in  the  State,  and  are  doing  commendable  work. 
Especially  efficient  work  is  done  in  these  schools  in  the 
industrial  and  manual  subjects.  Courses  in  teacher- 
training  are  also  given  during  the  summer  term  of  the 
Negro  Agricultural  and  Technical  College  at  Greensboro, 
which  was  established  in  1891.  The  Indian  Normal 
School,  at  Pembroke,  in  Robeson  County,  was  estab- 
lished by  the  Legislature  in  1887  to  train  teachers  for  the 
Croatan  schools  of  that  county,  and  is  supported  by 
state  funds.  The  work  of  the  negro  and  Indian  normal 
schools  is  supervised  by  a  special  superintendent,  on  the 
staff  of  the  state  department  of  public  instruction.1 

Improvement  in  facilities  for  training  teachers  while 
in  service  has  also  been  made  in  recent  years.  By 
amendments  to  the  school  law,  enacted  in  1909,  a  teach- 
ers' institute,  to  continue  two  weeks  every  two  years, 
was  made  mandatory  for  every  county  in  the  State- 
These  institutes  are  conducted  by  competent  and  well- 
trained  men  and  women  and  are  of  much  service  to  the 

1  Separate  schools  are  provided  for  the  education  of  "persons  re- 
siding in  Robeson,  Sampson,  and  Richmond  counties,  supposed  to  be 
descendants  of  a  friendly  tribe  once  residing  in  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  State,  known  as  Croatan  Indians,  and  their  descendants."  In 
1914  there  were  2498  such  persons  of  school  age  in  these  counties, 
with  1854  enrolled  in  28  schools,  which  had  an  average  term  of  nearly 
103  days.  With  the  exception  of  the  provisions  for  separate  schools 
the  general  public-school  law  is  applicable  to  the  education  of  these 
children.  Laws  of  1885,  chap.  51,  sec.  2;  1889,  chap.  60,  sec.  1;  1911, 
chap.  215. 


354    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

public-school  teachers  of  the  State.  Through  the  state 
supervisor  of  teacher-training,  an  office  created  in  1909, 
this  work  has  been  systematized  and  greatly  improved. 
In  1914  teachers'  institutes  were  held  in  sixty-four  coun- 
ties. Special  arrangements  are  allowed  in  Chowan,  Dur- 
ham, Guilford,  Orange,  Pitt,  Wake,  and  Watauga  Coun- 
ties for  the  training  of  teachers  through  special  work  in 
summer  schools  or  otherwise.  Teachers'  associations 
have  been  organized  in  practically  every  county  in  the 
State  with  regular  monthly  meetings  of  the  teachers; 
and  reading-circles,  for  pursuing  the  professional  course 
of  study  prescribed  by  the  state  department  of  public  in- 
struction, are  also  organized  in  many  communities.  In 
all  of  these  agencies,  and  especially  in  that  of  the  pro- 
fessional improvement  of  teachers,  North  Carolina  Ed- 
ucation, the  official  state  teachers'  journal,  is  heartily 
cooperating  and  rendering  most  valuable  service.1 

Encouraging  progress  continues  also  in  the  develop- 
ment of  rural  secondary  education.2  Since  the  passage  of 
the  public  high-school  law  in  1907  there  has  been  a  grad- 
ual increase  in  the  number  of  schools  and  their  equip- 
ment, and  in  teaching  force,  enrollment,  and  length  of 
school  term.  The  report  of  the  state  inspector  of  high 
schools  for  1915  showed  that  there  were  214  of  these 
schools  in  the  State  in  that  year,  and  that  the  number 
was  gradually  increasing.  At  that  time  only  five  counties 

1  See  p.  363. 

1  The  author  is  indebted  to  Professor  N.  W.  Walker,  state  inspector 
of  high  schools,  for  practically  all  the  material  contained  in  the  follow- 
ing discussion  of  secondary  education.  The  material  is  included  here 
practically  as  he  prepared  it.  This  discussion  pertains  primarily  to 
rural  public  high  schools.  The  city  schools  of  North  Carolina  oper- 
ate under  special  charters  and  are  not  affected  by  the  public  high- 
school  law. 


THE  PRESENT   SYSTEM  355 

in  the  State  were  without  these  institutions  —  Chowan, 
New  Hanover,  Pasquotank,  Perquimans,  and  Watauga. 
Eighty-nine  of  these  schools  had  four-year  courses, 
eighty-seven  had  three-year  courses,  and  thirty-eight 
had  two-year  courses.  The  enrollment  in  1915  was 
8986  and  the  average  daily  attendance  was  6773.  The 
number  of  teachers  employed  in  these  schools  at  that 
time  was  434.  More  than  $260,000  was  expended  for 
rural  secondary  education  in  the  State  in  that  year,  and 
the  average  school  term  was  about  156  days.  Consider- 
able progress  was  being  made  in  the  construction  of  new 
and  better  buildings,  in  improving  dormitory  facilities, 
and  in  the  improvement  of  equipment  and  apparatus. 
Since  the  beginning  of  this  system  of  state-aided  public 
high  schools  new  buildings  and  equipment  costing 
$2,000,000  have  been  provided  for  them  and  for  the 
elementary  grades  operated  in  connection  with  them. 
Forty  of  these  schools  have  provided  dormitories.  The 
accompanying  table  indicates  the  material  progress  that 
was  made  in  this  part  of  the  educational  system  of  the 
State  between  1908  and  1915:  — 

1908  1915 

Schools  in  operation 145  214 

Schools  reporting  four-year  courses.  2  89 

Schools  reporting  three  year  courses  43  87 

Schools  reporting  two-year  courses  100  38 

Number  of  teachers  in  these  schools         215  434 

Number  of  full-time  teachers 173  340 

Number  of  students  enrolled 3,949  8,986 

Number  of  fourth-year  students  en- 
rolled   70  609 

Amount  of  high-school  funds  raised 
by  local  taxation  for  mainte- 
nance        $27,474.48  $81,267.62 


356    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Amount  of  high-school  funds  con- 
tributed by  the  counties  for  main- 
tenance    $21,943.65      $75,348.92 

Amount  spent  for  maintenance.  ..  $91,415.99    $247,253.59 

In  the  rural  high-school  development  of  the  State 
standardization  has  not  been  made  a  fetish.  The  chief 
emphasis  has  been  on  laying  safe  and  sane  foundations 
for  a  state- wide  system  of  secondary  schools  which  may 
be  standardized  later  according  to  rational  standards. 
When  begun,  a  few  years  ago,  these  schools  were  en- 
grafted upon  some  of  the  best  rural  elementary  schools 
in  such  a  way  as  to  insure  their  development  from  the 
elementary  school  upward  rather  than  from  the  college 
downward.  This  does  not  mean  that  in  the  effort  to 
build  up  high  schools  for  the  country  districts  standards 
have  been  forgotten  or  neglected.  Along  with  the  in- 
crease in  popular  interest  in  public  secondary  schools, 
and  with  their  increase  in  numbers,  in  financial  support, 
teaching  force,  and  material  equipment,  there  have  come 
better  organization,  correlation  and  system,  and  better 
standards  of  work.  The  school  officials  have  come  to  a 
better  understanding  and  appreciation  of  the  scope  and 
purpose  of  the  secondary  school,  and  realize  that  as  an 
institution  it  has  peculiar  problems  and  unusual  obliga- 
tions and  opportunities.  The  tendency  now  is  to  put 
into  practice  principles  which  were  long  ago  accepted 
only  in  theory  —  to  adapt  the  high  school,  through 
properly  differentiated  courses  of  instruction,  to  the 
needs  of  the  individual  pupil,  and  to  relate  it  more 
closely  to  community  life.  This  tendency  is  especially 
pronounced  in  the  farm-life  school  departments. 

The  farm-life  school  in  the  State  is  in  every  case, 
except  Vanceboro  in  Craven  County  and  Clemmons  in 


THE   PRESENT   SYSTEM  357 

Forsyth  County,  a  department  of  the  state-aided  public 
high  school,  in  which  department  special  provision  is 
made  for  affording  the  boys  of  the  country  districts 
an  opportunity  to  study  agriculture  and  certain  allied 
subjects,  and  for  affording  the  girls  an  opportunity  to 
study  home  economics  and  certain  related  subjects. 
The  funds  for  operating  the  departments  of  agriculture 
and  home  economics  are  contributed  by  the  county  and 
the  State,  and  these  funds  are  in  addition  to  all  others 
contributed  from  these  sources.  This  type  of  school, 
known  in  most  States  as  the  "agricultural  high  school," 
has  been  given  the  local  name  of  "farm-life  school"  in 
North  Carolina  because  its  primary  purpose  is  to  fit 
boys  and  girls  for  happier  and  more  profitable  living 
on  the  farm.  Instruction  in  farm-life  subjects  in  these 
schools  is  not  confined,  however,  to  pupils  of  the  high- 
school  grades;  the  farm-life  department  is  open  also  to 
pupils  of  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades.  More- 
over, certain  kinds  of  extension  work  are  carried  on  in 
the  community  and  throughout  the  county,  not  only 
during  the  regular  session,  but  also  during  vacation 
time. 

At  this  time  (1916)  there  are  in  operation  in  the  State 
nineteen  of  these  farm-life  departments,  and  provision 
has  been  made  for  opening  others.  The  present  value 
of  these  nineteen  high-school  plants,  in  connection  with 
which  these  departments  are  operated,  is  about  $420,000. 
Improvements  made  during  the  year  1914-15  amounted 
to  more  than  $178,000.  The  school  buildings  proper  are 
worth  about  $240,000,  and  the  dormitories  connected 
with  them  are  worth  nearly  $100,000.  These  schools 
own  698  acres  of  land  worth  $44,000,  and  barns,  stock, 
and  equipment  worth  nearly  $20,000.     For  the  year 


358    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

1914-15  there  was  spent  for  the  maintenance  of  these 
special  departments  the  sum  of  $39,000,  and  for  the 
year  1915-16  more  than  $60,000  was  spent  for  the  same 
purpose. 

All  public  high  schools  receiving  state  aid  are,  of 
course,  under  state  supervision.  Their  courses  of  study 
must  be  approved  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction;  their  teachers  must  be  examined  and  cer- 
tificated by  the  state  board  of  examiners;  and  their 
buildings  and  equipment  must  be  adequate  for  the  work 
which  they  undertake  to  do.  The  state  inspector  of 
high  schools,  who  is  appointed  by  the  state  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  gives  practically  all  of  his  time 
to  the  supervision  and  direction  of  all  high  schools  which 
are  aided  by  the  State.1  Speaking  of  this  part  of  the 
educational  system  of  the  State,  Professor  Walker 
says :  — 

The  outlook  for  the  larger  development  of  this  system  of 
schools  is  indeed  encouraging,  and  the  remarkable  progress 
already  made  is  prophetic  of  greater  expansion  and  growth  in 
the  near  future.  The  present  policy  and  ideal  of  those  charged 
with  the  direction  of  educational  affairs  in  North  Carolina 
look  to  providing  a  system  of  public  secondary  education 
adequate  enough  to  meet  the  State's  needs  for  high-school 
training  —  the  needs  for  college  preparation,  for  cultural 
training,  and  partially,  at  least,  the  needs  for  vocational 
training.  It  will,  of  course,  be  some  time  before  this  system  of 
schools  will  be  developed  to  such  a  degree  of  efficiency,  but 
the  progress  already  made  is  highly  encouraging  for  the  future. 
For  the  present  the  effort  is  to  develop  from  one  to  four  state- 
aided  high  schools  in  each  county,  at  least  one  of  which  shall 
be  fully  and  adequately  equipped  for  giving  a  standard  four- 
year  program  of  study,  with  courses  properly  differentiated 

1  The  state  inspector  of  high  schools  is  also  Professor  of  Secondary 
Education  in  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 


THE  PRESENT   SYSTEM  859 

to  meet  varying  individual  and  community  needs.  A  safe 
foundation  has  been  laid,  and  the  public  high  schools  of  the 
State  are  rapidly  becoming  enabled  to  meet  any  reasonable 
demands  made  upon  them  in  the  matter  of  preparing  young 
people  for  college  and  for  the  duties  of  citizenship  and  life. 

Attention  should  also  be  called  to  the  rapidly  develop- 
ing city  and  town  public  high  schools.  These  schools 
are  not  operated  under  the  special  high-school  law,  but 
under  special  charters.  For  the  year  1914-15  seventy- 
one  such  schools  reported  to  the  state  department  of 
education.  Forty-five  of  these  reported  four-year 
courses,  and  twenty-six  reported  three-year  courses. 
In  these  schools  339  teachers  were  engaged  in  instruct- 
ing nearly  8000  pupils.  These  schools  are  rapidly  becom- 
ing standardized,  and  are  reorganizing  their  work  so  as 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  colleges  for  more  advanced 
preparation  for  entrance  and  the  demands  for  voca- 
tional and  industrial  training  that  come  from  the  com- 
munities supporting  them. 

An  increase  in  the  number  of  well-trained  county  super- 
intendents who  are  giving  their  entire  time  to  the  work 
of  supervising  the  country  school  is  another  sign  of  con- 
tinued educational  progress.  In  1914  seventy-one  super- 
intendents were  devoting  their  entire  time  to  this  im- 
portant work,  an  increase  of  twenty  over  1912.  These 
officers  are  organized  into  state  and  district  associations, 
and  hold  annual  meetings  for  a  study  of  their  common 
problems  and  for  making  improvement  at  this  vital 
point.  More  intelligent  and  expert  supervision  is  now 
one  of  the  most  persistent  needs  of  rural  education  in 
North  Carolina. 

To  promote  improvement  in  this  part  of  the  public- 
school  system  two  state  agents  for  rural  elementary 


360    THE  PUBLIC  SCIIOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

schools,  one  for  the  white  and  one  for  the  colored  schools, 
give  practically  all  their  time  to  field  work,  in  making 
a  first-hand  study  of  the  needs  and  conditions  of  rural 
education.  Their  work  has  revealed  the  need  for  more 
adequate  school  supervision,  and  many  county  boards 
of  education  have  appropriated  funds  for  employing 
competent  women  to  assist  in  this  work.  Seven  counties 
were  employing  rural  supervisors  for  white  schools  in 
1914,  and  supervisors  for  the  colored  schools  were  em- 
ployed in  nineteen  counties  in  the  same  year.  Of  these 
latter  fifteen  were  employed  by  county  funds  and  ap- 
propriations from  the  Jeanes  Fund,  and  four  received 
their  compensation  from  the  counties  and  the  Slater 
Fund.  The  Peabody  Rural  Supervision  Fund  aids  in 
the  work  among  the  white  schools.  Through  the  work  of 
the  supervisors  among  the  negro  schools  improvements 
have  been  made  in  buildings  and  grounds,  in  sanitary 
conditions,  and  in  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching.  They 
aid  the  regular  teachers  in  teaching  the  usual  subjects, 
and  in  addition  teach  cooking,  sewing,  house-cleaning, 
shuck  mat-making,  chair-caning,  basketry,  and  other 
forms  of  industry.  They  have  also  helped  to  organize 
"Home-Makers  Clubs"  among  the  girls  and  women, 
the  purpose  of  which  corresponds  to  the  "Tomato 
Club"  and  "Corn  Club"  work  carried  on  among  the 
white  people. 

The  first  great  educational  problem  [in  North  Carolina 
to-day,  says  Dr.  J.  Y.  Joyner,  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction]  is  the  adaptation  of  the  work  of  the  rural  school 
to  the  needs  of  rural  life,  to  the  everyday  needs  of  the  country 
people,  that  constitute  more  than  eight  tenths  of  our  popula- 
tion. We  must  prepare  country  boys  and  girls  to  make  the 
most,  and  to  get  the  most,  out  of  all  that  is  about  them  — 
soil,  plant,  and  animal,  the  three  great  sources  of  wealth  in 


THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  361 

the  world;  and  to  use  what  they  make  and  get  in  the  best  ways 
to  enrich,  sweeten,  beautify,  and  uplift  country  life,  socially, 
morally,  intellectually,  spiritually,  making  it  the  ideal  life 
that  God  intended  it  to  be,  which  men  will  seek  and  love  to 
live.  This  includes  and  necessitates  the  development  of  a 
type  of  country  school,  by  reasonable  consolidation  of  small 
districts  and  by  local  taxation  in  larger  territories,  that  shall 
not  have  less  than  three  teachers  and  shall  be  adequately 
equipped  in  all  respects  to  give  such  preparation,  vocational 
and  cultural,  to  the  country  boys  and  girls,  and  to  become  the 
social,  intellectual,  industrial,  and  civic  center  of  the  whole 
community.1 

To  the  successful  solution  of  this  problem  many 
agencies  are  contributing,  and  encouraging  signs  of 
success  are  rapidly  appearing.  The  establishment  of 
farm-life  schools  and  of  rural  high  schools,  and  special 
attention  to  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  instruction 
and  training  in  rural-life  subjects,  all  show  promise  of 
almost  unlimited  development  for  "the  preservation, 
prosperity  and  happiness  of  our  rural  population,  for 
the  protection  and  progress  of  our  urban  population 
and  for  the  prevention  of  the  decay  of  our  whole  civiliza- 
tion/'  Other  hopeful  and  stimulating  means  for  rural 
uplift  are  "Community  Service  Week,"  which  was  in- 
augurated in  1914  to  improve  the  schools,  roads,  and 
social,  economic,  moral,  and  health  conditions  of  the 
State,  "North  Carolina  Day,"  and  county  commence- 
ments. County  commencements  mark  one  of  the  most 
significant  forward  educational  steps  taken  in  the  State 
in  recent  years.  In  1914  forty-one  counties  held  com- 
mencements in  which  75,000  children  participated,2  and 
2500  children  received  certificates  for  the  completion  of 

1  New*  and  Observer  (Educational  Edition),  July,  1915. 
'  The  first  county  commencement  in  North  Carolina  was  held  in 
Wayne  County  in  1910.   For  "  North  Carolina  Day  "  see  chap.  xv. 


362  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  seventh  grade  of  school  work.  These  occasions  are 
proving  very  effective  means  for  cultivating  local  pride 
and  community  patriotism  and  sentiment  for  general 
educational  improvement.  In  all  of  this  work  many 
agencies  are  helping:  the  state  department  of  educa- 
tion, educational  institutions,  the  state  department  of 
agriculture,  the  Farmers'  Union,  and  the  state  board  of 
health.  Practical  instruction  in  public  health  and  hy- 
giene is  another  forward  step  toward  improvement  of 
rural  conditions,  and  wholesome  sentiment  is  rapidly 
gaining  that  such  instruction  should  be  more  exten- 
sively emphasized  through  educational  agencies. 

Effective  means  for  promoting  practical  instruction 
and  of  connecting  the  work  of  the  school  with  the  life 
of  the  people  have  also  appeared  in  the  development  of 
boys'  corn  clubs,  girls'  tomato  clubs,  and  other  forms 
of  community  organization.  Through  the  aid  of  the 
national  department  of  agriculture,  the  state  depart- 
ment of  agriculture  and  experiment  station,  the  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College,  the  state  department  of 
education,  cooperating  with  teachers,  supervisors,  and 
county  superintendents,  an  increased  interest  in  this 
work  continues  to  develop. 

In  the  general  movement  for  educational  improve- 
ment the  North  Carolina  Teachers'  Assembly  and  North 
Carolina  Education,  the  official  state  teachers'  journal, 
continue  to  lend  invaluable  aid.  The  state  teachers' 
organization,  which  had  a  creditable  ante-bellum  ca- 
reer,1 was  revived  in  1884,  and  since  that  time  has  been 
one  of  the  most  helpful  agencies  in  educational  progress 
and  in  the  professional  improvement  and  inspiration 
of  the  teachers  of  the  State.  The  meetings,  which  are 
1  See  chap.  ix. 


THE  PRESENT   SYSTEM  363 

held  annually  during  Thanksgiving  week  and  usually 
in  Raleigh,  are  largely  attended  by  all  the  educational 
forces  of  the  State.  Numerous  organizations  are  allied 
with  the  assembly  and  hold  their  annual  meetings  at 
the  same  time.  Among  these  are  the  Association  of 
(Kindergarten  Teachers,  the  Association  of  Primary 
Teachers,  the  Association  of  Grammar  Grade  Teachers, 
the  State  Association  of  County  Superintendents,  the 
Association  of  City  School  Superintendents  and  Prin- 
cipals, the  Association  of  Music  Teachers,  and  the  Asso- 
ciation of  High  School  Teachers  and  Principals.  Presi- 
dent Robert  H.  Wright,  of  the  East  Carolina  Teachers* 
Training  School,  is  president  of  the  assembly  for  1916. 

North  Carolina  Education,  now  for  many  years  the 
official  teachers'  journal  of  the  State,  is  devoted  to  "  edu- 
cation, rural  progress,  and  civic  betterment."  The 
magazine  is  edited  by  Professor  E.  C.  Brooks,  of  the 
Trinity  College  School  of  Education,  and  published  by 
Mr.  W.  F.  Marshall,  of  Raleigh.  It  is  published  monthly 
except  July  and  August,  and  since  its  establishment 
under  the  present  editorship  in  September,  1906,  has 
been  of  immediate  help  to  all  movements  that  looked 
to  promoting  educational  advancement  in  the  State, 
and  has  rendered  especially  valuable  service  in  stimu- 
lating a  professional  spirit  among  the  teachers  of  North 
Carolina. 

The  North  Carolina  High-School  Bulletin,  edited  by 
State  Inspector  of  High  Schools  N.  W.  Walker,  began 
publication  in  1910.  This  magazine  is  published  quar- 
terly by  the  University  of  North  Carolina  and  is  sent 
free  of  cost  to  all  superintendents  and  high-school  prin- 
cipals in  the  State.  It  is  devoted  to  the  improvement 
of  the  high  schools,  its  articles  dealing  in  the  main  with 


364    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

the  various  phases  of  secondary  educational  work,  and 
in  this  field  it  is  rendering  a  high  order  of  service.1 

Another  important  task  facing  the  State  to-day  is  the 
elimination  of  adult  illiteracy.  According  to  the  federal 
census  of  1910  fully  twelve  per  cent  of  the  total  white 
population  of  North  Carolina  above  ten  years  of  age, 
and  fourteen  per  cent  of  the  white  male  adults,  are  un- 
able to  read  and  write.  The  number  of  white  female 
adults  who  are  unable  to  read  and  write  is  probably  as 
large,  though  statistics  are  lacking  on  the  subject.  In 
1910  the  census  showed  that,  with  the  exception  of 
Louisiana  and  New  Mexico,  North  Carolina  had  the 
largest  number  of  native-born  white  illiterates  in 
the  United  States.  These  conditions  are  arousing  the 
people  of  the  State  to  action.  Through  the  cooperation 
of  tne  North  Carolina  Farmers'  Union  and  the  state 
board  of  agriculture,  funds  have  been  provided  for  the 

1  Since  the  war  educational  journalism  in  North  Carolina  has  had 
numerous  careers.  Stephen  D.  Pool  edited  the  North  Carolina  Journal 
of  Education  at  Raleigh  in  1874  and  1875;  J.  F.  Heitman  edited  the 
North  Carolina  Educational  Journal  at  Chapel  Hill  from  1881  to  1883 
and  at  Trinity  College  from  1883  to  1885;  Eugene  Harrell  edited  the 
North  Carolina  Teacher  at  Raleigh  from  1883  to  1895,  a  magazine 
intended  largely  for  graded-school  teachers;  W.  A.  Blair  and  J.  F. 
Tomlinson  were  joint  editors  of  the  School  Teacher,  published  at 
Winston-Salem  from  January  to  November,  1887,  when  Blair  became 
sole  editor  and  proprietor.  After  that  time  the  magazine  appeared  for 
several  years  at  Winston-Salem  and  Baltimore.  The  Southern  Edu- 
cator was  edited  by  Edwin  S.  Shepp  at  Durham  from  1890  to  1893. 
The  Western  North  Carolina  Journal  of  Education  was  published  by 
D.  L.  Ellis  at  Fair  View  Collegiate  Institute  from  August,  1891,  to 
1892.  P.  P.  Claxton  and  Logan  D.  Howell  began  editing  and  man- 
aging the  North  Carolina  Journal  of  Education  at  Greensboro  in  Au- 
gust, 1897,  where  it  appeared  monthly  for  three  years.  It  was  sus- 
pended for  six  months,  but  resumed  publication  in  February,  1901. 
In  July  of  that  year  it  became  the  Atlantic  Educational  Journal,  pub- 
lished at  Richmond,  Dallas,  and  St.  Louis,  with  P.  P.  Claxton  as 
editor. 


THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  865 

employment  of  a  secretary  who  is  devoting  his  attention 
to  the  organization  of  a  movement  to  reduce  illiteracy. 
Other  civic,  social,  educational,  and  benevolent  organi- 
zations, and  the  press  of  the  State,  are  lending  their  as- 
sistance also;  and  through  the  means  of  the  "moonlight 
school,"  which  has  been  found  effective  in  Kentucky 
and  other  States  and  successfully  used  in  several  coun- 
ties of  North  Carolina  in  1914,  rapid  progress  is  being 
made  in  solving  this  problem,  which  is  giving  concern 
to  all  thoughtful  people  of  the  State.1 

Other  tendencies  and  tasks  than  those  of  increasing 
the  material  equipment  of  the  schools;  of  improving, 
professionalizing,  and  protecting  the  teachers;2  of 
adapting  the  work  of  the  school  to  the  life  of  the  people; 
of  emphasizing  agricultural,  industrial,  and  vocational 
training,  and  of  eliminating  adult  illiteracy,  are  also 
present  in  education  in  North  Carolina.  The  complex 
business  life  of  the  time  has  produced  a  condition  which 
calls  for  more  attention  to  moral  instruction  in  the 
schools,  in  favor  of  which  sentiment  is  gradually  grow- 
ing. The  education  and  training  of  defectives  is  also 
claiming  increased  attention,  and  development  in  this 
direction  will  likely  continue.  The  State  School  for  the 
Blind,  at  Raleigh;  the    State  School  for  the  Deaf,  at 

1  The  "moonlight  school"  is  a  school  conducted  in  the  public- 
school  building  at  night  by  volunteer  teachers.  For  the  convenience 
of  the  country  people  the  school  is  conducted  preferably  on  moonlight 
nights.  The  first  of  these  schools  for  illiterate  adults  was  established 
in  Harnett  County  by  J.  D.  Ezzell,  the  late  superintendent  of  schools 
of  that  county. 

1  The  State  has  never  undertaken  a  pension  system  for  its  teachers, 
though  the  matter  has  been  frequently  agitated  locally,  and  a  teach- 
ers' mutual  aid  society  was  formed  by  the  public-school  teachers  of 
Raleigh  in  January,  1915.  This  is  the  first  step  taken  in  North  Caro- 
lina toward  teachers'  pensions. 


366     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

Morgan  ton;  the  Stonewall  Jackson  Training  School,  at 
Concord,  for  moral  defectives;  and  the  Caswell  Training 
School,  at  Kinston,  for  mental  defectives,  are  liberally 
supported  by  the  State  and  are  doing  creditable  edu- 
cational work.  The  tendency  of  the  State  to  care  for  its 
mentally  deficient  children  and  the  universal  growth  of 
the  humane  spirit  have  given  impetus  to  a  rather  wide- 
spread movement  to  secure  a  better  organization  of 
education  and  a  more  rational  grading  of  school  work. 
This  movement  is  rapidly  appearing  in  the  larger  and 
better  regulated  city  systems  and  will  perhaps  eventually 
receive  attention  generally.  The  application  of  more 
scientific  methods  to  educational  problems  is  likewise 
a  significant  tendency  in  the  State  at  the  present  time, 
and  gives  evidence  of  a  broadening  conception  of  educa- 
tional enterprise. 


THE   PRESENT  SYSTEM  367 


REFERENCES 

Public  Laws  of  North  Carolina;  Report  of  the  State  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction  for  1912-14;  North  Carolina 
Education,  vols.  I  to  x;  Reports  of  the  State  Inspector  of  Public 
High  Schools,  1907-08  to  1914-15;  Report  of  the  Supervisor 
of  Teacher-Training,  1912-14;  Reports  of  the  State  Agents  of 
Rural  Schools,  1914. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  improvements  in  supervision  are  being  made  in 
your  county? 

2.  How  did  your  county  observe  "  North  Carolina  Day " 
last  year?  How  did  it  observe  "  Community  Service 
Week"  ? 

3.  How  does  the  compulsory-attendance  law  work  in  your 
community?  What  are  the  difficulties  of  enforcing  the 
law? 

4.  How  many  rural  high  schools  in  your  county?  How  many 
farm-life  schools? 

5.  What  is  being  done  in  your  school  to  give  instruction  and 
training  in  domestic  science  and  industrial  work? 

6.  How  have  the  qualifications  of  the  teachers  improved  in 
your  county  in  recent  years? 

7.  What  is  being  done  to  promote  the  professional  develop- 
ment of  the  teachers  in  your  county? 

8.  What  is  the  most  difficult  educational  problem  in  your 
community? 

9.  What  is  your  most  difficult  problem  as  a  teacher? 

10.  How  many  commencements  has  your  county  held? 
What  has  been  the  value  of  such  occasions  to  your  com- 
munity? 

1 1 .  What  is  your  community  doing  to  reduce  adult  illiteracy? 

12.  How  many  moonlight  schools  were  conducted  in  yout 
county  last  year?  How  many  this  year?  What  has  been 
the  result  of  this  work? 


CHAPTER   XVII1 

WHAT  OF  THE   FUTURE? 

The  history  of  education  in  North  Carolina  is  an  in- 
spiring story  of  the  heroic  struggle  of  the  common  man 
for  equality  of  opportunity  in  education  that  he  and  his 
might  have  equality  of  opportunity  in  life.  It  is  a  story 
of  a  struggle  first  against  the  hindering  hand  of  inherited 
aristocracy,  tradition,  and  prejudice,  reaching  out  from 
a  revered  but  dead  past,  and  later  against  the  ruin, 
poverty,  and  demoralization  of  a  devastating  civil  war. 
This  story  has  been  well  told  in  the  preceding  pages,  and 
the  author  has  rendered  a  valuable  service  to  this  and 
subsequent  generations  of  North  Carolinians. 

The  names  of  Murphey  and  Wiley,  of  Mclver  and  Ay- 
cock,  and  of  other  great  leaders  in  this  glorious  struggle, 
shall  shine  on  the  pages  of  North  Carolina's  history  and 
be  cherished  in  the  hearts  of  her  people  until  time  shall 
be  no  more.  But  in  a  democracy  the  burden  of  every 
battle  for  better  education  must  be  borne  at  last  by  the 
multitudes  and  the  victory  finally  won  by  them.  Let  us 
not  forget,  then,  the  common  man  and  the  common 
woman,  —  common  in  numbers,  uncommon  in  char- 
acter and  consecration,  —  in  shop  and  field  and  office, 
in  home  and  schoolroom  and  market-place,  through 
whose  quiet  labor  and  unheralded  sacrifice,  through 
whose  dauntless  courage  and  deep  conviction,  so  many 
of  the  dreams  of  these  great  leaders  and  prophets  of 

1  The  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  James  Y.  Joyner,  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  for  this  chapter. 


WHAT  OF  THE   FUTURE?  369 

education  have  been  turned  into  splendid  realities  and 
so  many  of  their  hopes  into  happy  fulfillment.  May  this 
story  of  our  educational  struggle  and  achievement  in 
past  and  present  serve  to  inspire  all  who  read  it  with  a 
larger  hope  for  the  future,  to  quicken  their  zeal  and 
strengthen  their  arm  for  the  larger  educational  tasks 
that  lie  before  us. 

For  what  has  been  done  let  us  thank  God  and  from 
it  take  courage.  But,  after  all,  looked  at  in  the  large, 
how  small  indeed  does  seem  the  little  done,  how  great 
the  much  to  be  done,  and  how  little  the  time  to  do  it.  | 

With  13,255  teachers  employed  in  the  white  and  col- 
ored schools  of  North  Carolina,  only  about  one  fifth  of 
whom  have  college  diplomas,  less  than  one  half  of  whom 
have  had  any  special  professional  training,  but  little 
more  than  one  half  of  whom  have  had  as  much  as  four 
years'  experience  in  teaching,  there  is  still  much  to  be 
done.  More  money  must  be  spent,  more  legislation  must 
be  enacted,  and  more  must  be  accomplished  for  elevat- 
ing, standardizing,  and  improving  the  profession  of 
teaching  and  for  guaranteeing  to  it,  the  children,  and 
the  public  the  protection  which  they  deserve. 

With  an  average  annual  school  term  for  the  United 
States  of  158.1  days,  an  average  annual  school  term  in 
many  States  of  180  days,  and  with  an  average  annual 
school  term  of  only  121.98  days  in  North  Carolina, 
much  remains  to  be  done  to  increase  school  funds  by 
state  appropriation,  by  county  and  district  taxation, 
and  otherwise,  so  as  to  lengthen  the  school  term  of  the 
State  to  eight  or  ten  months. 

Of  the  7565  rural  white  and  colored  schools  in  the 
State,  nearly  seventy  per  cent  of  them  are  still  one- 
teacher  schools  in  which  seven  grades  of  work  are  re- 


370    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

quired.  These  schools  are  wholly  inadequate  for  the 
task  of  properly  preparing  country  boys  and  girls  for 
citizenship  and  for  the  other  duties  of  country  life. 
Here  also  much  work  remains  to  be  done.  By  conserva- 
tive consolidation  and  by  transportation  and  otherwise, 
these  schools  must  be  made  into  community-center 
schools,  with  more  and  better  teachers  and  better  equip- 
ment, so  that  they  will  more  adequately  perform  the 
true  mission  of  the  country  school  in  ministering  to  the 
social,  intellectual,  moral,  industrial,  and  agricultural 
needs  of  the  country  community. 

With  12.3  per  cent  of  the  total  white  population  of 
North  Carolina  over  ten  years  of  age,  14  per  cent  of  the 
total  white  voting  population,  and  31.9  per  cent  of  the 
negro  population,  unable  to  read  and  write,  according 
to  the  United  States  census  of  1910,  a  great  task  and  a 
great  duty  confront  us  for  the  reduction  and  elimina- 
tion of  this  menacing  illiteracy. 

With  only  seventy-six  of  the  one  hundred  counties  of 
the  State  employing  whole-time  superintendents  and 
only  sixteen  counties  employing  assistant  superintend- 
ents and  supervisors  for  the  rural  schools,  much  re- 
mains to  be  done  for  the  adequate  supervision  and 
direction  of  these  schools. 

With  the  average  monthly  salary  of  rural  white  teach- 
ers in  North  Carolina  only  $40.74,  and  the  average  an- 
nual salary  of  the  same  teachers  only  $235.27;  with  the, 
average  monthly  salary  of  colored  teachers  only  $24.69, 
and  the  average  annual  salary  of  the  same  teachers  only 
$128.42,  much  more  money  is  needed.  Funds  must  be 
supplied  to  increase  their  compensation,  so  as  to  com- 
mand and  retain  for  this  most  delicate  and  difficult 
work  the  type  of  men  and  women  needed  for  it,  in  order 


WHAT  OF  THE  FUTURE?  371 

to  justify  them  in  the  long  and  expensive  preparation 
necessary  for  professional  and  masterful  teaching. 

With  a  total  school  population  of  778,283  from  six  to 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  only  77.2  per  cent  of  which  is 
enrolled,  and  only  about  53  per  cent  of  which  is  in  con- 
tinuous daily  attendance  in  the  public  schools,  much 
work  still  remains  to  be  done.  Through  the  enforce- 
ment, enlargement,  and  improvement  of  our  ^compul- 
sory attendance  laws  and  through  the  cultivation  of 
educational  sentiment  and  interest,  this  multitude  of 
children  must  be  brought  into  the  schools  and  kept  there 
long  enough  to  give  them  at  least  a  mastery  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  education. 

With  only  214  regularly  established  rural  high  schools, 
enrolling  only  8,986  country  boys  and  girls  and  only  19 
farm-life  schools,  there  still  remains  great  need  for  more 
money  and  more  work.  The  number  of  these  schools 
must  be  increased  and  the  development  of  the  work  of 
those  already  established  must  be  enlarged  for  the  prep- 
aration of  a  larger  number  of  country  boys  and  girls 
for  college  and  for  life  through  adequate  high-school 
and  vocational  training. 

Such  are  some  of  the  hard  but  glorious  educational 
tasks  and  duties  that  lie  before  our  people.  What  a 
splendid  opportunity  for  constructive  educational  work 
and  development  the  future  holds  for  patriotic  citizens 
of  the  State!  What  a  joyous  privilege  to  every  son  and 
daughter  of  the  State  to  have  a  part  in  such  a  work! 

From  the  evidence  of  our  recent  progress,  indicating 
on  the  part  of  our  people  an  aroused  public  sentiment,  a 
determination  to  make  adequate  provision  for  the  edu- 
cation of  their  children  as  rapidly  as  their  means  will 
permit,  a  sacrifice  in  time,  convenience,  and  money, 


372     THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

beautiful  and  sometimes  touching  to  behold,  are  we  not 
justified  in  predicting  the  rapid  development  of  a  public- 
school  system  in  North  Carolina  that  shall  be  adequate 
to  the  demands  of  this  age  of  universal  education  and 
to  the  stupendous  task  of  training  for  citizenship  and 
service,  according  to  their  various  capacities,  all  of  her 
children  white  and  black? 

Within  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  or  less  we  con- 
fidently expect  to  see  within  reasonable  reach  of  every 
country  and  city  child  in  the  State  a  complete  system  of 
public  education.  This  system  will  include  elementary 
and  high  schools  adequately  equipped  with  comfortable 
houses,  ample  grounds,  and  trained  teachers.  The 
schools  will  be  efficiently  supervised  by  competent  su- 
perintendents, maintained  for  eight  or  ten  months  in  the 
year  by  state,  county,  and  district  taxation.  Every 
child  will  be  required  to  secure  at  home  in  the  elemen- 
tary school  a  mastery,  at  least,  of  the  rudiments  of  learn- 
ing that  constitute  the  foundation  of  all  education  and  of 
all  preparation  for  intelligent  citizenship  and  efficient 
service.  Every  child  who  has  the  desire  and  capacity 
will  be  afforded  opportunity  to  secure  near  home,  in 
county  and  township  high  schools,  fuller  preparation 
for  college  or  for  life,  through  courses  of  study  shaped 
to  meet  the  needs  and  natural  adaptations  of  all  for  liter- 
ary, professional,  commercial,  and  industrial  life. 

These  elementary  and  high  schools,  planted  in  the 
rural  districts  within  reach  of  the  rural  population,  will 
become  the  centers  of  a  new  social,  intellectual,  civic, 
industrial,  and  agricultural  life.  They  will  be  the  ef- 
fective means  of  breaking  up  the  isolation,  the  loneliness, 
and  the  colorlessness  of  rural  life.  They  will  elevate  to 
a  higher  plane  of  intelligence,  labor,  and  service  the 


WHAT  OF  THE  FUTURE?  373 

great  masses  of  the  country  people  and  prevent  the  de- 
generation of  this  biggest  and  best  part  of  our  popula- 
tion into  an  Old- World  peasantry.  Through  the  dis- 
semination of  intelligence  and  special  training  for  their 
work,  adapted  to  their  environment,  among  the  masses 
of  the  country  folks,  our  farms  will  become  more  pro- 
ductive; our  waste  lands  will  be  reclaimed;  our  roads 
will  be  improved;  modern  conveniences  that  increased 
wealth  can  command  will  be  brought  to  the  farmers' 
doors,  and  rural  life  will  be  made  more  livable. 

Such  a  system  of  schools  do  we  foresee  in  the  near  fu- 
ture for  the  Old  North  State,  extending  its  educational 
ladder,  without  a  missing  rung,  from  the  doorstep  of  the 
humblest  cottage  in  the  remotest  rural  district  to  the 
doorway  of  the  highest  university  or  college  of  State  or 
of  Nation.  This  is  the  lever  that  shall  uplift  the  State 
and  roll  it  in  another  course. 

For  such  a  system  of  schools  the  foundations,  deep 
and  broad,  have  been  completed.  Most  of  the  construc- 
tive work  still  lies  before  us,  but  we  shall  do  it  in  another 
generation.  We  must  do  it  largely  by  ourselves.  By 
sympathetic  cooperation  others  can  help  us  to  help  our- 
selves, but  we  cannot  successfully  engraft  the  work  of 
others  upon  our  foundations.  An  effective  educational 
system  must  ever  be  an  organic  growth;  so  must  ours 
grow  out  of  our  own  life  and  heart  and  be  shaped  largely 
by  our  own  needs  and  the  spirit  and  genius  of  our  own 
people,  embodying  in  itself  the  best  ideals  of  our  past, 
but  ever  broadening  to  comprehend  also  the  safest  edu- 
cational ideals  of  the  present  and  of  the  future  in  all  the 
world. 

Let  all  who  love  the  State  and  believe  in  the  splendid 
possibilities  of  her  children,  and  in  her  wonderful  ma- 


874    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 

terial  resources,  rally  to  the  standard  of  the  schools  and 
labor  without  ceasing  for  their  improvement  until  every 
child  in  North  Carolina  shall  have  as  good  a  chance, 
through  as  good  a  school,  as  any  other  child  in  all  the 
world  for  the  highest  development  of  every  power 
within  him  and  of  every  resource  about  him. 


INDEX 


"  A.  B."  articles  on  education  by, 
80. 

Academy  movement,  44-62;  de- 
cline of,  54. 

Academies,  early,  37-43;  number 
chartered  from  1785  to  1825, 
49-53;  curricula  of,  54-56;  phys- 
ical equipment  of,  56;  tuition 
charges  m,  56,  57;  salaries  of 
teachers  in,  56,  58;  teachers  in, 
58;  methods  of  teaching  in,  58, 
59;  jealous  of  the  public  school 
system,  150. 

Act  to  encourage  local  taxation, 
325. 

Adams,  Rev.  James,  missionary, 
6,9. 

Adult  illiteracy,  364. 

Agents  of  rural  schools,  359,  360. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege for  Negroes,  322. 

Agricultural  education,  257. 

Alamance  County,  educational 
conditions  in,  in  1857,  204,  205. 

Alderman,  Edwin  A.,  321,  322. 

Alexander,  Rev.  Joseph,  40. 

Allen,  Miss  Mariah,  58. 

American  education,  periods  of, 
138,  139. 

American  Missionary  Association, 
243. 

American  Unitarian  Association, 
MA 

Ante-bellum  educational  practice, 
192-211. 

Antioch  College,  184,  note. 

Appalachian  Training  School, 
339,  340,  352. 

Apprenticeship  system,  12, 14-30. 

Appropriations  for  schools,  35, 
326,337. 

Archibald,  Rev.  Robert,  41. 


Arguments  against  schools,  118, 
119. 

Arithmetics  used  before  the  war, 
197. 

Ashe,  S.  P.,  79. 

Asheboro  Normal  School,  259. 

Ashley,  Rev.  S.  S.,  227,  228,  239, 
251;  reports  of,  239/. 

Association  of  City  School  Super- 
intendents and  Principals,  363. 

Association  of  Grammar  Grade 
Teachers,  363. 

Association  of  High  School  Teach- 
ers, and  Principals,  363. 

Association  of  Kindergarten 
Teachers,  363. 

Association  of  Music  Teachers, 
363. 

Atlantic  Educational  Journal,  364, 
note. 

Attempts  at  readjustment  (1877- 
1900),  294-328. 

Attempts  to  preserve  the  schools 
during  the  war,  184. 

Avery,  Waightstill,  library  of,  11. 

Ay  cock,  Charles  B.,  educational 
services  of,  326,  327,  333,  342, 
343,  368;  and  the  revival,  329- 
44;  inaugural  message  of,  329; 
philosophy  of,  342,  343. 

Bacon,  Alice  M.,  quoted,  215. 

Bacon's  Rebellion,  1. 

Baltimore  Association  of  Friends, 

242. 
Baptists,  4. 

Barksdale  Case,  316,  317. 
Barnard,  Henry,  158,  161,  218. 
Barr,  Rev.  John,  library  of,  11. 
Bfttk  library  at,  7-9. 
Battle.  Kemp  P.,  251,  303,  note. 
Battle,  Judge  W.  H.,  257. 


376 


INDEX 


Beaufort  County,  petition  from, 
81. 

Beginnings  of  Reconstruction, 
212-37. 

Benbury,  Thomas,  45. 

Berkeley,  Governor  of  Virginia,  1. 

Bingham,  Robert,  257. 

Blackboards,  59,  60,  209,  210; 
scarce  in  "old  field"  schools, 
152. 

Blair,  W.  A.,  364,  note. 

Blake,  H.  B.,  259. 

Blakely  Gazette,  77. 

Blind,  State  school  for,  365. 

Bray,  Rev.  Thomas,  aided  estab- 
lishment of  libraries,  7. 

Brooks,  Eugene  C,  334,  342,  363; 
quoted,  172. 

Burgwin,  John,  library  of,  11. 

Burke  County,  educational  con- 
ditions in,  in  1857,  200-04. 

Burrington,  George,  Governor, 
instructions  to,  4,  5. 

Caldwell,  Dr.  David,  library  of, 

11;  educational  influence  of,  39; 

"Log  College"  of,  39. 
Caldwell,  Dr.  Joseph,  116,  117; 

letters  on  education  by,  120-29. 
Caldwell,  Governor  T.  R.,  251, 

257. 
Campbell,  J.  D.,  177. 
Canby,  General  E.  R.  S.,  226. 
Cape  Fear  Teachers'  Association, 

259. 
Carolina  Watchman,  144. 
Caswell,  Richard,  45. 
Caswell  Training  School,  for  men- 
tal defectives,  366. 
Cathcart,  William,  library  of,  11. 
Central  North  Carolina  Teachers' 

Association,  memorial  of,  297. 
Charity,  element  of,  in  the  school 

system,  66. 
Charlotte  Democrat,  184. 
Child  labor  law,  347,  348. 
Chowan  Precinct  Court,  records 

of,  21,  22. 
Church  wardens,  duties  of,  10, 17, 

25. 


City  school  systems,  268,  283, 
341. 

Civil  Rights  Bill,  253,  254;  effect 
of,  in  North  Carolina,  255;  in 
Virginia,  255,  note. 

Civil  War,  attempts  to  preserve 
the  schools  during,  184. 

Classical  schools,  38-41. 

Classics,  in  academies,  54-56. 

Claxton,  P.  P.,  364,  note. 

Clio's  Nursery  and  Science  Hall, 
39,  40. 

Colonial  period,  slow  educational 
growth  during,  1,  2. 

Community  Service  Week,  361. 

Comparison  of  reconstruction  and        / 
ante-bellum  conditions,  263-69. 

Compulsory  education,  257. 

Compulsory  school,  law,  847. 

Confederate  securities,  185. 

Congressional  plan  of  Reconstruc- 
tion, 213,  220,  225,  227. 

Connor,  R.  D.  W.,  quoted,  324, 
326,  327,  330,  334. 

Consolidation  of  schools,  370. 

Constitutional  convention  (1865), 
221;  (1868),  186;  composition 
of,  227;  committee  on  educa- 
tion in,  228;  work  of,  ratified, 
229;  educational  provisions  of, 
230;  (1875),  261. 

Constitutional  provision  for 
schools,  81. 

Coon,  Charles  L.,  339. 

Corn  Club  work,  360,  362. 

Counties  released  from  levying 
school  taxes  during  the  war,  103. 

Counties,  adopting  the  first  school 
system,  145. 

County  commencements,  361, 
and  note. 

County  superintendents,  salaries 
of,  in  1890,  320;  improvement 
in,  359. 

Course  of  study  in  1869.  235. 

Court  records  of  educational  im- 
portance, 19,  20,  21,  22. 

Craven,  Braxton,  established  the 
first  state  normal  school  in 
North  Carolina,  171-73;  educa- 


INDEX 


377 


tional  philosophy  of,  173;  in- 
terest in  educational  journal- 
ism, 173,  note;  normal  school 
work  after  the  war,  302,  and 
note,  303,  note. 

Crowfield  Academy,  39. 

Cullowhee  Training  School,  321, 
352. 

Cumberland  College,  48. 

Curriculum  of  academies,  54-56; 
of  the  early  school  system,  147; 
of  the  "old  field"  schools,  151, 
152;  before  the  war,  192,  193. 

Curry,  J.  L.  M.,  322. 

Davidson  Academy,  48. 

Davidson  College,  39. 

Deaf,  State  school  for,  365. 

Debts  left  by  Reconstruction, 
295. 

"Declaration  against  Illiteracy," 
332,  333. 

Defect  of  the  early  school  system, 
148. 

Dickinson,  Matthew,  57. 

Difficulties  in  the  way  of  educa- 
tion, 121-24. 

Doherty,  W.  H.,  184,  note. 

Drummund,  William,  first  "gov- 
ernor of  Albemarle,"  2. 

Durham,  Plato,  227,  228. 

East  Carolina  Teachers'  Training 
School,  309,  340,  352. 

Edenton,  library  in,  9,  10;  act  to 
build  schoolhouse  in,  34,  35; 
attempts  to  establish  a  school 
in,  37. 

Edgecombe  County,  educational 
meeting  in,  80. 

Education,  under  lords  proprie- 
tors, 1-13;  under  royal  rule, 
82-43;  first  public  expenditures 
for,  36;  first  legislative  com- 
mittee on,  69;  held  in  low  esti- 
mation, 128;  of  the  fret-din. -n 
advocated  by  Calvin  II.  \\  il.-v. 
188. 

Educational   Association,  forma- 

..  tioo  of.  176,  259. 


Educational  convention,  (1873),  y 
256,  257;  (1874),  258;  program  * 
of,  258;  (1902),  331. 

Educational  Journal,  180,  257. 

Educational  journalism,  need  for, 
174,  note;  since  the  war,  364, 
note. 

Educational  practice  before  the 
war,  192-211. 

Educational  sentiment,  growth  ^ 
of,  113-37;  conditions  in  1836, 
136;  campaign  of  1839,  144;  in 
1840, 146;Jduring  the  Civil  War, 
181,  182,  186;  during  Recon- 
struction, 239  jf.;  between  1885 
and  1900,  315-28;  in  1900,  330; 
in  1902,  332,  333. 

Edward  VI,  suppression  of  mon- 
asteries by,  15. 

Elizabeth,  poor-relief  enactments 
of,  15,  16. 

Ellendale  Teachers'  Institute, 
258. 

Ellis,  D.  L.,  364,  note. 

Emigration,  problem  of,  129,  130; 
evils  of,  131. 

England,  educational  philosophy 
of,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
3;  boys  sent  to,  for  educational 
advantages,  32;  argument  of, 
against  public  schools,  69,  note. 

English  Church,  encouraged  in- 
tellectual growth,  5. 

English  Schism  Act,  enforced  in 
the  colony,  5;  reproduction  of, 
5;  influence  of,  12. 

Enrollment,  in  1914,  371. 

Equalizing  fund,  346. 

Established  Church,  12;  and  the 
Srhism  Act,  37.  See  also  Eng- 
lish Church,  State  Church. 

European  influences,  14. 

Evergreen,  174,  note. 

Ezzell.  J.  D.,  365,  note. 

Fair   View   Collegiate   Institute, 

364,  note. 
Family  Lyceum,  133. 
Farmers'  Alliance,  322,  323. 
Farmers'  Union,  362,  364. 


378 


INDEX 


Farm  Life  Schools,  348,  349,  356, 

357,  358. 
Fayetteville,  memorial  by  citizens 

of,  135. 
First  public  school  law,  96, 140-44. 
Fiske,  Rev.  F.  A.,  243,  277. 
Flinn,  Andrew,  58. 
Fourteenth  Amendment,  226. 
Free  school,  bill  to  establish,  35. 
Free-school  idea,  growth  of,  84-85. 
Freedmen,  education  of,  242,  243. 
Freedmen's  Bureau,  work  of,  243; 

mistakes  of,  243,  265. 
Freedmen's  Commission,  243. 
French,  John  R.,  227. 
Friends,  Baltimore  Association  of, 

242;  education  work  of,  244, 245. 

See  Quakers. 
Friends'  Freedmen's  Aid  Associa- 
tion, 243. 
Fusion  Legislature  of  1895, 323, 324. 
Future  of  the  schools,  outlook  for, 

368-74. 

General  statements  concerning 
education  in  the  South,  212-14. 

Geography,  methods  of  teaching, 
59;  late  in  entering  the  curricu- 
lum, 197;  textbooks  in,  used 
before  the  war,  197-98. 

Germans,  educational  influence  of, 
38. 

Gordon,  Rev.  William,  mission- 
ary, 9. 

Graded  schools,  early  movement 
for,  183;  313,  323. 

Graham,  John  W.,  227,  229,  232. 

Graham,  Joseph,  library  of,  12. 

Graham,  William  A.,  94. 

Grammar,  early  textbooks  on, 
198,  199;  variety  of  texts  before 
the  war,  199. 

Grant,  Major  H.  L.,  227. 

Granville  Hall,  45. 

Greensboro  Patriot,  188,  note. 

Griffin,  Charles,  first  professional 
teacher  in  North  Carolina,  6. 

Hall,  Dr.  James,  library  of,  11; 
school  of,  39,  40. 


Harrell,  Eugene,  364,  note. 

Harris,  Robert,  302. 

Hart,  Albert  Bushnell,  quoted,  216. 

Haywood,  John,  80. 

Heath,  Robert,  charter  to,  3. 

Heitman,  J.  F.,  364,  note. 

Henry  VIII,  suppression  of  mon- 
asteries by,  15. 

Hill,  Charles  A.,  plan  for  a  school 
fund,  79,  82. 

Hill,  J.  A.,  resolution  of,  78. 

History,  late  in  entering  the  cur- 
riculum, 199,  200;  textbooks  on, 
before  the  war,  199,  200. 

Hodgson,  John,  library  of,  11. 

Holden,  W.  W.,  221,  226,  230, 
231,  249,  261. 

Holmes,  Gabriel,  interest  in  agri- 
cultural education,  77. 

"  Home  geography,"  198. 

"  Home-Makers'  Clubs,"  360. 

Hood,  Rev.  J.  W.,  assistant  super- 
intendent of  schools,  244,  245. 

Hooper,  William,  library  of,  11. 

Howard,  General  Oliver  O.,  quot- 
ed, 216. 

Howell,  Logan  D.,  364,  note. 

Illiteracy,  341,  842,  370;  "De- 
claration against,"  332,  333. 

Immigration  encouraged,  1,  2; 
slight,  before  1728,  2. 

Indians,  schools  for,  353,  and  note; 
normal  school  for,  353. 

Influence   of   Reconstruction   on       y 
education,  263-69. 

Innes,  James,  library  of,  11;  will 
of,  46,  47. 

Innes  Academy,  in  WilmiDgton, 
46,  47. 

Institutes,  322,  323. 

Internal  improvements,  commit- 
tee on,  in  1833,  130;  slow  prog- 
ress of,  132. 

Iredell,  James,  library  of,  11. 

Jarvis,  Thomas  J.,  249,  304,  305, 
308,  310,  334,  335;  quoted.  304, 
305,  308,  334,  335;  excerpt  from 
will  of,  310. 


INDEX 


879 


Jeanes  Fund,  350. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  343. 

Johnston,  Samuel,  library  of,  10, 
11. 

Johnston,  Gabriel,  library  of,  10, 
11;  message  of  33,  34;  Assem- 
bly's reply  to,  34,  35. 

Jones,  Willie,  library  of,  11. 

Joyner,  James  Y.,  333,  334,  342, 
360,  361,  368,  note;  quoted, 
108,  336,  337,  360,  361;  chapter 
by,  368-74. 

Journal  of  Education,  aided  by  the 
Peabody  Board,  £86,  287. 

Kenney,  Charles  R.,  plan  of,  for 

schools,  115. 
Ker,  Rev.  David,  57;  his  school 

near  Fayetteville,  41. 
Kindergarten  work,  beginnings  of, 

303,  note. 

Lack  of  qualified  teachers,  126, 
127. 

Laflin,  General  Byron,  227. 

Lancaster,  Joseph,  73;  school  sys- 
tem of,  60,  61. 

Lancasterian  schools,  73;  method 
of,  75. 

Land  values,  decrease  of,  129. 

Latin  Grammar  School,  44. 

Law,  first,  of  educational  impor- 
tance in  the  colony,  36,  37;  first, 
for  public  schools,  96,  140^*4; 
of  1869  compared  with  ante- 
bellum legislation,  236;  of  1869, 
provisions  of,  234-36. 

Laws,  first  printed  collection  of, 
32. 

Lay  readers,  the  first  teachers  in 
the  colony,  3. 

Legislative  appropriations,  made 
but  not  paid.  241,  242. 

Legislature,  expense  of,  117,  note; 
of  1868,  composition  of,  231. 

Letter  against  schools,  118,  119. 

Lexington  Normal  School,  259. 

Liberty  Hall  Academy,  41.  45,  48. 

Libraries,  early,  7-12;  circulating, 
12;  in  academical.  50. 


Library  associations,  need  for, 
165,  174,  note. 

Liquors,  import  duty  on,  for  edu- 
cation, 37. 

Literary  Board,  report  of,  in  1838, 
96. 

Literary  Fund,  created,  65,  88; 
84-112;  sources  of,  88;  early 
growth  of,  89,  90;  idle  and  un- 
productive, 90;  poorly  managed 
91,  92;  increased  by  surplus 
revenue,  93;  first  appropria- 
tions from,  97,  98;  income  of 
and  disbursements  from,  98; 
threatened  by  the  war,  101, 102; 
effort  to  protect  during  the  war, 
102,  103,  104;  losses  of,  100, 
101,  104,  105;  not  used  for  war 
purposes,  185;  condition  of,  in 
1869, 105;  provision  for,  in  1868, 
105;  in  1876,  105,  106;  from 
1870  to  1903,  106,  107;  reor- 
ganization of,  in  1903,  107-08; 
operation  of,  since  1903,  108- 
10;  schoolhouses  built  by,  108- 
10;    income   from,   small,   246. 

Local  taxation,  beginning  of,  97; 
first  in  the  State,  145;  in  1859, 
180;  in  1860,  186;  act  to  en- 
courage, 325. 

"Log  College"  of  Dr.  Caldwell, 
39. 

Log  schoolhouses,  in  1914,  351. 

Lord  Bishop  of  London,  license  of, 
required  of  teachers,  4,  5. 

Lords  proprietors,  education  un- 
der, 1-13;  charters  to,  provided 
for  State  Church,  3. 

Lottery,  privilege  of,  allowed,  45. 

Maclaine,  Archibald,  library  of,  11. 
Mann,  Horace,  158, 161, 184,  note,    >/ 

188,  218. 
Maps,  used  in  academies,  55,  50. 
Marshall,  \Y.  F  ,  363. 
Martin  Academy,  48. 
Martin,  William,  bill  by,  76. 
Mashburn,  early  teacher,  7. 
Masses,  attempts  at  educational     y 

improvement  of,  33-37. 


380 


INDEX 


Material  equipment  of  the  schools 
before  the  war,  200. 

Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, 41. 

Memorial  of  citizens  of  Fayette- 
ville,  135;  of  the  Central  North 
Carolina  Teachers'  Association, 
297,  298;  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association,  805,  306. 

Mental  defectives,  school  for,  366. 

Merrimon,  A.  S.,  254,  257. 

Methods  of  education,  discussed, 
125-29. 

Methods  of  teaching,  in  acade- 
mies, 58,  59,  60;  in  "old  field" 
schools,  152. 

Military  governments  supersede 
State  Governments,  226. 

Mixed-school  question,  231,  232, 
234,  253. 

Monasteries,  suppression  of,  by 
Henry  VIII  and  Edward  VI,  15. 

Moonlight  schools,  365,  and  note. 

Moral  defectives,  school  for,  366. 

Mordecai,  Jacob,  59. 

Morse's  Geography,  198. 

Moseley,  Edward,  library  of,  9, 
10. 

Murphey,  Archibald  D.,  59,  69, 
82,  368;  report  of,  and  plan  for 
v/      schools,  70-74. 

McAden,  Rev.  Hugh,  early  teach- 
er, 38. 

McCorkle,  Rev.  Samuel  C,  and 
Zion  Parnassus,  40. 

Mclver,  Alexander,  251,  254. 

Mclver,  Charles  D.,  321,  322,  331, 
333,  334,  335,  336,  342,  368. 

McPheeters,  Rev.  Dr.,  58. 

McQueen,  Hugh,  bill  by,  115, 134, 
135. 

Nash,  Abner,  45. 

National  Teachers'  Association 
in  1865,  213. 

Needs  of  the  present  school  sys- 
tem, 368-74. 

Negroes,  tax  on,  for  schools  pro- 
posed, 35;  in  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1868,  227;  during 


Reconstruction,  238;  provi- 
sions for  education  of,  265; 
schools  for,  aided  by  Peabody 
Board,  281,  282,  284,  285,  286, 
287;  normal  schools  for,  312; 
normal  instruction  of,  323,  352, 
353;  agricultural  and  mechani- 
cal college  for,  353;  supervision 
of  elementary  schools  of,  360. 

Newbern,  private  school,  in,  36; 
school  chartered  in,  37. 

Newbern  Spectator,  145. 

New  England  Freedmen's  Relief 
Association,  242. 

News  and  Observer,  861,  note. 

New  York  National  Freedmen's 
Relief  Association,  242,  243. 

Noisy  schools,  203. 

Normal  College,  171,  172,  173. 

Normal  schools,  257;  established, 
in  1877,  261,  262;  work  of,  300- 
02;  established  in,  1881,  312; 
for  negroes,  339,  353. 

Normal  school  work,  beginnings 
of,  171-73;  184,  note;  258,  259, 
321;  at  Trinity  College,  302. 

North  Carolina  Day,  338,  361, 
and  note. 

North  Carolina  Education,  354, 
362,  363. 

North  Carolina  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 103. 

North  Carolina  Educational  Jour- 
nal, 364,  note. 

North  Carolina  High  School  Bulle- 
tin, 363. 

North  Carolina  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, establishment  of,  177,  178, 
187,  364,  note. 

North  Carolina,  law  of  1715,  23, 
30;  of  1755,  25,  26,  29,  30;  of 
1760,  26,  27;  of  1762,  26,  28, 
30,  and  note;  of  1764,  27;  of 
1777,  28;  influence  of  its  ante- 
bellum schools,  63,  64;  constitu- 
tional provisions  for  schools,  64. 

North  Carolina  Reader,  188. 

North  Carolina  Teacher,  364,  note. 

North  Carolina  Teachers'  Assem- 
bly, 362,  363. 


INDEX 


381 


North  Carolina  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, 302. 

"Old  Blue-Back"  speller,  194, 
195. 

"Old  Field,"  article  by, criticizing 
the  policy  of  the  Legislature, 
133. 

"Old  field"  schools,  description 
of,  150,  151,  152;  jealous  of  the 
public-school  system,  150;  teach- 
ers in,  150,  151;  curriculum  of, 
151,  152;  methods  of  teaching 
in,  152. 

Olney's  Geography,  198. 

One-teacher  schools,  369. 

Orange  County  Sunday-School 
Union,  petition  from,  81. 

Outside  educational  agencies  dur- 
ing Reconstruction,  242,  243. 

Oxford  Mercury,  159. 

"  Piedophilus,"  letter  by,  119, 120. 

Pattillo,  Rev.  Henry,  library  of, 
12,  45,  46. 

Peabody  Board,  work  of,  215,  242, 
253;  opposed  to  mixed  schools, 
254,  255;  261,  262,  301,  302, 
341. 

Peabody  Fund,  48;  work  of,  271- 
92;  creation  of,  272;  States  aid- 
ed by,  276;  amounts  distrib- 
uted from,  in  the  South,  277; 
towns  aided  by,  in  North 
Carolina,  279,  280,  281,  282, 
284,  285,  286,  287,  288;  results 

<.f.  no  n. 

Peabody,  George,  271,  273. 
Peabody  Normal  College,  48,  289. 
Peabody  Rural  Supervision  Fund, 

360. 
Peabody    School    of    Education, 

352. 
Peabody  Trustees,  272;  plan  of, 

272,  273,  274. 
Pegram.  William  H.,  303,  note. 
Pensions,  for  teachers,  365,  note. 
Perquimans  Precinct  Court,  rec- 

ords  of.  19,  20,  21. 
Pestaloxzi.  73. 


Physical  equipment  of  academies, 
56. 

Pinewoods  Teachers'  Institute, 
259. 

Poe,  Clarence,  quoted,  324,  326, 
327,  330,  334. 

Pollock,  Mrs.  Louise,  303,  note. 

Pollock,  Miss  Susie,  303,  note. 

Pool,  Stephen  D.,  260,  364,  note. 

Poor,  duties  of  overseers  of,  16, 17; 
authority  transferred  to  over- 
seers of,  28;  plan  for  the  educa- 
tion of,  73-74;  education  of, 
proposed,  79-80. 

Poor-law  and  apprenticeship  sys- 
tem, 12,  14-31. 

Poplar  Tent  Academy,  41. 

Population  of  North  Carolina,  2, 
32,  116,  129. 

Presbyterian  General  Assembly, 
243. 

Presbyterians,    influence   of,    32,  / 

38-^0. 

Present  needs  of  the  schools,  368- 
74. 

Present  school  system,  345-67.  ^ 

Presidential  plan  of  Reconstruc- 
tion, 220,  226. 

Primers,  used  before  the  war, 
195. 

Princeton  College,  influence  of,  11,  ^ 

32,  38,  58. 

Printing-press,  first  in  the  colony, 
32. 

Program  of  educational  conven- 
tion in  1874,  258. 

Progress  of  education  in  1858, 178; 
between  1885  and  1900,  315- 
28. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  243. 

Providence  Academy,  41. 

Prussian  school  system,  admired 
by  Wiley,  189. 

Public  education,  beginnings  of,         / 
138-57.  v 

Qualifications  of  teachers  before 

the  war,  200. 
Quakers,  interest  in  education,  6, 

38.  See  Friends. 


382 


INDEX 


Queen's  College,  first  institution 
chartered  by  the  State,  40,  41. 
Queen's  Museum,  40,  41. 

Race  riots,  324. 

Rainsford,  Rev.  Giles,  mission- 
ary, 7,  9. 

Raleigh  Mutual  Aid  Society,  365, 
note. 

Raleigh  Register,  80,  118,  119, 
145. 

Raleigh  Sentinel,  227. 

Raleigh  Standard,  184. 

Raleigh  Star,  134,  144. 

Reading  books  used  before  the 
war,  196. 

"  Rebel  question,"  226. 

Rebellion,  Bacon's,  1. 
w'  Recent  educational  progress,  349- 
52. 

Reconstruction,  beginnings  of, 
212-37;  congressional  plan  of, 
213,  220,  225,  227;  presidential 
plan  of,  220,  226;  benefits  of, 

,  267,  268 ;  education  during,  238- 
70;  overthrow  of,  261;  evils  of, 
266,  267;  influence  of,  on  edu- 
cation, 263,  269. 

Reed,  Rev.  James,  sermon  on 
education  by,  36. 

Reform  Legislature  of  1870,  316; 
composition  of,  249. 

Reid,  James,  251. 

Religious  dissensions,  unfavorable 
to  educational  growth,  2,  3. 

Rigsbee  vs.  the  town  of  Durham, 
319. 

Riots,  in  Wilmington,  324. 

Royal  rule,  education  under,  32- 
42. 

Ruffner,  Henry,  299,  note. 

Rural  elementary  education,  prog- 
ress in,  340,  341. 

Rural  high  schools,  340,  354-59. 

Rural  libraries,  337. 

Rural  secondary  education,  354- 
59. 

Rural  schools,  agents  for,  359, 
360. 

Rutherfordton  Gazette,  145. 


Salaries  of  teachers,  370,  371;  in 
academies,  56-58. 

Salary|(of  state  superintendent  re- 
duced, 249. 

Salisbury  high  school,  40. 

Scarborough,  John  C,  261,  304, 
305,  note,  310,  note. 

Schism  Act,  5,  12,  37,  41. 

Schoolbooks  recommended  by 
Wiley,  194. 

School  fund  proposed,  69,  79, 
81. 

School  funds,  influence  of,  85; 
purposes  of,  85-86;  in  other 
States,  88;  poorly  managed,  98, 
99,  100,  101.     | 

Schoolhouses,  56. 

Schoolmasters,  scarcity  of,  32; 
occupation  of,  scorned,  128. 

School  population,  371. 

School  statistics  (1857),  174,  175; 
(1858),  179,  180;  (1860),  181; 
(1869),  241,  242;  (1870),  245; 
(1872),  251,  252;  (1873),  255, 
256;  (1874),  260;  (1884),  313, 
314,  315;  (1914),  350-52;  163, 
164,  165,  168,  303,  304. 

School  system,  introduction  of,  in 
1839,  146,  147. 

School  taxes,  authority  for,  262. 

School  Teacher,  364,  note. 

Science  Hall  and  Clio's  Nursery, 
39,  40,  45. 

Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish,  influence 
of,  11;  immigration  of,  37,  38. 

Sears,  Rev.  B.,  253,  254,  262; 
made  general  agent  of  the  Pea- 
body  Fund,  273;  277,  279. 

Separate  schools,  discussion  of, 
228,  229,  231. 

Shepp,  Edwin  S.,  364,  note. 

Sickles,  General  David  E.,  226. 

Silent  schools,  203. 

Simmons,  W.  G.,  257. 

Slater  Fund,  353,  360. 

Slaves,  increase  of,  129. 

Smith  Academy,  46. 

Social  and  economic  conditions, 
129-32. 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 


INDEX 


S83 


Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  6-10, 
36. 

Soldiers'  Memorial  Society  of 
Boston,  242. 

Southern  Educator,  364,  note. 

Southern  Education  Board,  331, 
336,  341. 

Southern  education,  loose  state- 
ments concerning,  212-14. 

Southern  Index,  173,  note. 

Southern  South,  quoted  from,  216. 

Southern  Weekly  Post,  160. 

"Spelling-bees,"  195. 

Spelling-books,  before  the  war, 
194,  195. 

State  Association  of  County 
Superintendents,  339,  363. 

State  Church,  3.  See  English 
Church,  Established  Church. 

State  Literary  Fund,  338,  339. 

State  Literary  and  Historical 
Association,  338. 

State  Normal  and  Industrial  Col- 
lege, 322,  336,  352. 

State  School  for  the  Blind,  365. 

State  School  for  the  Deaf,  365. 

State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  office  abolished, 
189,  190,  223,  224. 

State  Teachers'  Association,  166, 
180;  memorial  of,  305. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  218,  226. 

Stonewall  Jackson  Training 
School,  366. 

Sugar  Creek  Presbyterian  Church, 
40,41. 

Sumner,  Charles,  283. 

Sunday-School  Union  of  Orange 
County,  petition  of,  81. 

Superintendent,  provision  for  of- 
fice of,  156;  duties  of,  156;  office 
of,  abolished,  189, 190. 223,  224. 

Supervision,  lack  of,  before  the 
war,  155. 

Supervisors,  of  rural  elementary 
schools,  341. 

Supreme  court  decisions,  246, 
249,  316-19. 

Surplus  revenue,  93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 
130. 


Tate,  Rev.  James,  39. 

Tate's  Academy,  39. 

Taxation,  fear  of,  65;  beginnings 
of,  local,  97;  hostility  to,  113; 
authority  for,  262;  for  school 
purposes,  308. 

Taylor,  Rev.  Ebenezer,  mission- 
ary, 9. 

Teacher-training,  352,  353. 

Teachers'  institutes,  first  in  the 
State,  184,  and  note;  held  in 
1872,  252;  in  1874,  258,  259. 

Teachers'  Reading  Circle,  work 
of,  341. 

Teachers,  scarcity  of,  2,  3,  245; 
required  to  be  licensed  by  Lord 
Bishop  of  London,  4,  5;  in 
academies,  salaries  of,  56-58; 
movement  to  organize  associa- 
tion of,  119,  120;  description  of, 
126,  127;  exempted  from  cer- 
tain duties,  148;  in  the  "old 
field"  schools,  150,  151;  com- 
parison of  salaries  of,  170,  note; 
180,  note;  370,  371;  aided  by, 
the  Peabody  Fund,  282,  284, 
286,  287;  present  condition  of, 
369. 

Teaching,  methods  of,  in  acade- 
mies, 58,  59. 

Term,  present  length  of  school, 
369. 

Textbooks  before  the  war,  193- 
200;  lack  of  uniformity  of,  193; 
distributed  through  the  Pea- 
body  Board,  245,  257,  277,  278; 
in  Virginia,  194,  note. 

The  American  Universal  Geogra- 
phy (Morse),  198. 

"The  Educational  Duties  of  the 
Hour,"  213. 

The  North  Carolina  Institute  of 
Education  formed,  120. 

Thyatira  Circulating  Library, 
11. 

Tomato  Club  work,  360,  262. 

Tomlinson,  J.  F.,  364,  note. 

Tomlinson,  Thomas,  private 
school  of,  36;  assistance  solicited 
for,  36. 


384 


INDEX 


Toon,  Thomas  F.,  330,  333. 

Tourgee,  Albion  W.,  227. 

Transportation  of  pupils,  370. 

Trinity  College,  173;  normal 
school  work  at  after  the  war, 
302;  School  of  Education  of, 
352. 

Tuition,  in  academies,  56,  57. 

Tutorial  instruction,  for  the  well- 
to-do,  12. 

Uniformity  of  textbooks,  lack  of, 
before  the  war,  193;  urged  by 
Wiley,  193. 

Union  Institute,  171,  172. 

Union  County,  educational  con- 
ditions in,  in  1857,  205,  206. 

University  of  North  Carolina, 
chartered,  64,  65. 

University  of  Nashville,  48. 

University  School  of  Education, 
352. 

Urmstone,  Rev.  John,  mission- 
ary, 8. 

Vance,  Governor,   104,  184,  297, 

298,  300,  302. 
Vaughan,  George,  offer  of,  to  aid 

education  of  Indians,  35. 
Vestry  Act,  of  1701,  3;  of  1715,  3; 

of  1764,  27,  28;  of  1777,  28. 
Virginia,   educational   conditions 

in,  in  1857,  154;  influence  of,  on 
J     North  Carolina,  16,  18,  29;  law 

of,  1743,  17,  19,  24;  of  1705,  24; 

of  1748,  24,  29;  Literary  Fund 

of,  69,  note;  plan  for  education 

in,  in  1817,  75;  textbooks  in, 

194,  note. 
Vogell,  Rev.  H.  C,  279. 

Walker,  John  M.,  report  of,  70. 


Walker,  N.  W.,  354,  note;  quoted, 
258,  359,  363. 

Wallis,  Rev.  James,  41. 

Warren,  E.  J„  249. 

Washington  College,  48. 

Welker,  Rev.  G.  W.,  232,  251. 

Wentworth,  educational  rally  at, 
334,  335. 

Western  Carolinian,  78,  80. 

Western  North  Carolina  Journal 
of  Education,  364,  note. 

Wiley,  Calvin  H.,  first  superinten-  S 
dent  of  public  instruction,  63, 
101, 102, 104, 146, 148,  150, 155, 
159, 223,  246, 257,  277,  368;  ap- 
pointed superintendent,  156;  ed- 
ucational revival  under,  158  ff.; 
early  work  for  the  schools, 
161  ff.;  school  reports  of,  168  ff.; 
difficulties  confronting,  165  ff. ; 
educational  philosophy  of,  187; 
value  of  his  reports,  187;  ad- 
vocated the  education  of  the 
freedmen,  188;  textbooks  by, 
188;  proposed  for  superinten- 
dent in  1872  and  1876, 190;  gen- 
eral agent  of  the  American 
Bible  Society,  190/ 

Wilkes  County,  first  educational 
meeting  in,  207-09. 

Winwright,  James,  will  of,  47,  48. 

Wise,  Governor  of  Virginia,  154, 
155. 

Woman's  Betterment  Association, 
336. 

Women  teachers,  scarcity  of,  165. 

Worth,  Jonathan,  226. 

Wright,  Robert  H.,  363. 

Yancey,  Bartlett,  82. 
Zion,  Parnassus,  40. 


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